RESUMO
Human T-cell leukemia virus type-1 (HTLV-1) is the etiological agent of adult T-cell leukemia (ATL). The trans-activator protein Tax of HTLV-1 plays crucial roles in leukemogenesis by promoting proliferation of virus-infected cells through activation of growth-promoting genes. However, critical target genes are yet to be elucidated. We show here that Tax activates the gene coding for cyclin-dependent kinase 7 (CDK7), the essential component of both CDK-activating kinase (CAK) and general transcription factor TFIIH. CAK and TFIIH play essential roles in cell cycle progression and transcription by activating CDKs and facilitating transcriptional initiation, respectively. Tax induced CDK7 gene expression not only in human T-cell lines but also in normal peripheral blood lymphocytes (PHA-PBLs) along with increased protein expression. Tax stimulated phosphorylation of CDK2 and RNA polymerase II at sites reported to be mediated by CDK7. Tax activated the CDK7 promoter through the NF-κB pathway, which mainly mediates cell growth promotion by Tax. Knockdown of CDK7 expression reduced Tax-mediated induction of target gene expression and cell cycle progression. These results suggest that the CDK7 gene is a crucial target of Tax-mediated trans-activation to promote cell proliferation by activating CDKs and transcription.
Assuntos
Quinase Ativadora de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina , Quinases Ciclina-Dependentes , Produtos do Gene tax , Vírus Linfotrópico T Tipo 1 Humano , Humanos , Vírus Linfotrópico T Tipo 1 Humano/genética , Vírus Linfotrópico T Tipo 1 Humano/patogenicidade , Produtos do Gene tax/genética , Produtos do Gene tax/metabolismo , Quinases Ciclina-Dependentes/genética , Quinases Ciclina-Dependentes/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição TFII/genética , Fatores de Transcrição TFII/metabolismo , Ativação Transcricional , Quinase 2 Dependente de Ciclina/genética , Quinase 2 Dependente de Ciclina/metabolismo , FosforilaçãoRESUMO
Poly ADP-ribose polymerase inhibitors (PARPi) are first-line maintenance therapy for ovarian cancer and an alternative therapy for several other cancer types. However, PARPi-resistance is rising and there is currently an unmet need to combat PARPi-resistant tumors. Here, we created an immunocompetent, PARPi-resistant mouse model to test the efficacy of combinatory PARPi and euchromatic histone methyltransferase 1/2 inhibitor (EHMTi) in the treatment of PARPi-resistant ovarian cancer. We discovered that inhibition of EHMT1/2 resensitizes cells to PARPi. Markedly, we show that single EHMTi and combinatory EHMTi/PARPi significantly reduced PARPi-resistant tumor burden and that this reduction is partially dependent on CD8 T cells. Altogether, our results show a low-toxicity drug that effectively treats PARPi-resistant ovarian cancer in an immune-dependent manner, supporting its entry into clinical development and potential incorporation of immunotherapy. Implications: Targeting the epigenome of therapy-resistant ovarian cancer induces an anti-tumor response mediated in part through an anti-tumor immune response.
RESUMO
Chromobox 2 (CBX2), an epigenetic reader and component of polycomb repressor complex 1, is highly expressed in >75% of high-grade serous carcinoma. Increased CBX2 expression is associated with poorer survival, whereas CBX2 knockdown leads to improved chemotherapy sensitivity. In a high-grade serous carcinoma immune-competent murine model, knockdown of CBX2 decreased tumor progression. We sought to explore the impact of modulation of CBX2 on the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), understanding that the TIME plays a critical role in disease progression and development of therapy resistance. Exploration of existing datasets demonstrated that elevated CBX2 expression significantly correlated with specific immune cell types in the TIME. RNA sequencing and pathway analysis of differentially expressed genes demonstrated immune signature enrichment. Confocal microscopy and co-culture experiments found that modulation of CBX2 leads to increased recruitment and infiltration of macrophages. Flow cytometry of macrophages cultured with CBX2-overexpressing cells showed increased M2-like macrophages and decreased phagocytosis activity. Cbx2 knockdown in the Trp53-null, Brca2-null ID8 syngeneic murine model (ID8 Trp53-/-Brca2-/-) led to decreased tumor progression compared with the control. NanoString immuno-oncology panel analysis suggested that knockdown in Cbx2 shifts immune cell composition, with an increase in macrophages. Multispectral immunohistochemistry (mIHC) further confirmed an increase in macrophage infiltration. Increased CBX2 expression leads to recruitment and polarization of protumor macrophages, and targeting CBX2 may serve to modulate the TIME to enhance the efficacy of immune therapies. SIGNIFICANCE: CBX2 expression correlates with the TIME. CBX2 modulation shifts the macrophage population, potentially leading to an immunosuppressive microenvironment, highlighting CBX2 as a target to improve efficacy of immunotherapy.
Assuntos
Microambiente Tumoral , Animais , Camundongos , Humanos , Feminino , Cistadenocarcinoma Seroso/patologia , Cistadenocarcinoma Seroso/metabolismo , Cistadenocarcinoma Seroso/genética , Cistadenocarcinoma Seroso/imunologia , Complexo Repressor Polycomb 1/genética , Complexo Repressor Polycomb 1/metabolismo , Neoplasias Ovarianas/patologia , Neoplasias Ovarianas/metabolismo , Neoplasias Ovarianas/genética , Neoplasias Ovarianas/imunologia , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , Regulação Neoplásica da Expressão Gênica , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Macrófagos/imunologia , Proteína BRCA2/genética , Proteína BRCA2/metabolismo , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/metabolismo , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/genéticaRESUMO
Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is the causative agent of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. The oncogene product Tax of HTLV-I is thought to play crucial roles in leukemogenesis by promoting proliferation of the virus-infected cells through activation of growth-promoting genes. These genes code for growth factors and their receptors, cytokines, cell adhesion molecules, growth signal transducers, transcription factors and cell cycle regulators. We show here that Tax activates the gene coding for coactivator-associated arginine methyltransferase 1 (CARM1), which epigenetically enhances gene expression through methylation of histones. Tax activated the Carm1 gene and increased protein expression, not only in human T-cell lines but also in normal peripheral blood lymphocytes (PHA-PBLs). Tax increased R17-methylated histone H3 on the target gene IL-2Rα, concomitant with increased expression of CARM1. Short hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated knockdown of CARM1 decreased Tax-mediated induction of IL-2Rα and Cyclin D2 gene expression, reduced E2F activation and inhibited cell cycle progression. Tax acted via response elements in intron 1 of the Carm1 gene, through the NF-κB pathway. These results suggest that Tax-mediated activation of the Carm1 gene contributes to leukemogenic target-gene expression and cell cycle progression, identifying the first epigenetic target gene for Tax-mediated trans-activation in cell growth promotion.
Assuntos
Produtos do Gene tax , Vírus Linfotrópico T Tipo 1 Humano , Proteína-Arginina N-Metiltransferases , Humanos , Proteína-Arginina N-Metiltransferases/genética , Proteína-Arginina N-Metiltransferases/metabolismo , Produtos do Gene tax/genética , Produtos do Gene tax/metabolismo , Vírus Linfotrópico T Tipo 1 Humano/genética , Ciclina D2/genética , Ciclina D2/metabolismo , Ativação Transcricional , Subunidade alfa de Receptor de Interleucina-2/genética , Subunidade alfa de Receptor de Interleucina-2/metabolismo , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , NF-kappa B/genética , Histonas/metabolismo , Histonas/genética , Epigênese Genética , Células JurkatRESUMO
Despite the success of poly-ADP-ribose polymerase inhibitors (PARPi) in the clinic, high rates of resistance to PARPi presents a challenge in the treatment of ovarian cancer, thus it is imperative to find therapeutic strategies to combat PARPi resistance. Here, we demonstrate that inhibition of epigenetic modifiers euchromatic histone lysine methyltransferases 1/2 (EHMT1/2) reduces the growth of multiple PARPi-resistant ovarian cancer cell lines and tumor growth in a PARPi-resistant mouse model of ovarian cancer. We found that combinatory EHMT and PARP inhibition increases immunostimulatory double-stranded RNA formation and elicits several immune signaling pathways in vitro. Using epigenomic profiling and transcriptomics, we found that EHMT2 is bound to transposable elements, and that EHMT inhibition leads to genome-wide epigenetic and transcriptional derepression of transposable elements. We validated EHMT-mediated activation of immune signaling and upregulation of transposable element transcripts in patient-derived, therapy-naïve, primary ovarian tumors, suggesting potential efficacy in PARPi-sensitive disease as well. Importantly, using multispectral immunohistochemistry, we discovered that combinatory therapy increased CD8 T-cell activity in the tumor microenvironment of the same patient-derived tissues. In a PARPi-resistant syngeneic murine model, EHMT and PARP inhibition combination inhibited tumor progression and increased Granzyme B+ cells in the tumor. Together, our results provide evidence that combinatory EHMT and PARP inhibition stimulates a cell autologous immune response in vitro, is an effective therapy to reduce PARPi-resistant ovarian tumor growth in vivo, and promotes antitumor immunity activity in the tumor microenvironment of patient-derived ex vivo tissues of ovarian cancer.
RESUMO
Despite the success of Poly-ADP-ribose polymerase inhibitors (PARPi) in the clinic, high rates of resistance to PARPi presents a challenge in the treatment of ovarian cancer, thus it is imperative to find therapeutic strategies to combat PARPi resistance. Here, we demonstrate that inhibition of epigenetic modifiers Euchromatic histone lysine methyltransferases 1/2 (EHMT1/2) reduces the growth of multiple PARPi-resistant ovarian cancer cell lines and tumor growth in a PARPi-resistant mouse model of ovarian cancer. We found that combinatory EHMT and PARP inhibition increases immunostimulatory dsRNA formation and elicits several immune signaling pathways in vitro. Using epigenomic profiling and transcriptomics, we found that EHMT2 is bound to transposable elements, and that EHMT inhibition leads to genome-wide epigenetic and transcriptional derepression of transposable elements. We validated EHMT-mediated activation of immune signaling and upregulation of transposable element transcripts in patient-derived, therapy-naïve, primary ovarian tumors, suggesting potential efficacy in PARPi-sensitive disease as well. Importantly, using multispectral immunohistochemistry, we discovered that combinatory therapy increased CD8 T cell activity in the tumor microenvironment of the same patient-derived tissues. In a PARPi-resistant syngeneic murine model, EHMT and PARP inhibition combination inhibited tumor progression and increased Granzyme B+ cells in the tumor. Together, our results provide evidence that combinatory EHMT and PARP inhibition stimulates a cell autologous immune response in vitro, is an effective therapy to reduce PARPi resistant ovarian tumor growth in vivo, and promotes anti-tumor immunity activity in the tumor microenvironment of patient-derived ex vivo tissues of ovarian cancer.
RESUMO
The transcription factor E2F links the RB pathway to the p53 pathway upon loss of function of pRB, thereby playing a pivotal role in the suppression of tumorigenesis. E2F fulfills a major role in cell proliferation by controlling a variety of growth-associated genes. The activity of E2F is controlled by the tumor suppressor pRB, which binds to E2F and actively suppresses target gene expression, thereby restraining cell proliferation. Signaling pathways originating from growth stimulative and growth suppressive signals converge on pRB (the RB pathway) to regulate E2F activity. In most cancers, the function of pRB is compromised by oncogenic mutations, and E2F activity is enhanced, thereby facilitating cell proliferation to promote tumorigenesis. Upon such events, E2F activates the Arf tumor suppressor gene, leading to activation of the tumor suppressor p53 to protect cells from tumorigenesis. ARF inactivates MDM2, which facilitates degradation of p53 through proteasome by ubiquitination (the p53 pathway). P53 suppresses tumorigenesis by inducing cellular senescence or apoptosis. Hence, in almost all cancers, the p53 pathway is also disabled. Here we will introduce the canonical functions of the RB-E2F-p53 pathway first and then the non-classical functions of each component, which may be relevant to cancer biology.
RESUMO
The TFDP1 gene codes for the heterodimeric partner DP1 of the transcription factor E2F. E2F, principal target of the tumor suppressor pRB, plays central roles in cell proliferation by activating a group of growth-related genes. E2F also mediates tumor suppression by activating tumor suppressor genes such as ARF, an upstream activator of the tumor suppressor p53, when deregulated from pRB upon oncogenic changes. Among 8 E2F family members (E2F1â¼E2F8), expression of activator E2Fs (E2F1â¼E2F3a) is induced at the G1/S boundary of the cell cycle after growth stimulation by E2F itself. However, mechanisms regulating DP1 expression are not known. We show here that over-expression of E2F1 and forced inactivation of pRB, by adenovirus E1a, induced TFDP1 gene expression in human normal fibroblast HFFs, suggesting that the TFDP1 gene is a target of E2F. Serum stimulation of HFFs also induced TFDP1 gene expression, but with different kinetics from that of the CDC6 gene, a typical growth-related E2F target. Both over-expression of E2F1 and serum stimulation activated the TFDP1 promoter. We searched for E2F1-responsive regions by 5' and 3' deletion of the TFDP1 promoter and by introducing point mutations in putative E2F1-responsive elements. Promoter analysis identified several GC-rich elements, mutation of which reduced E2F1-responsiveness but not serum-responsiveness. ChIP assays showed that the GC-rich elements bound deregulated E2F1 but not physiological E2F1 induced by serum stimulation. These results suggest that the TFDP1 gene is a target of deregulated E2F. In addition, knockdown of DP1 expression by shRNA enhanced ARF gene expression, which is specifically induced by deregulated E2F activity, suggesting that activation of the TFDP1 gene by deregulated E2F may function as a failsafe feedback mechanism to suppress deregulated E2F and maintain normal cell growth in the event that DP1 expression is insufficient relative to that of its partner activator E2Fs. a maximum of 6 keywords: E2F, DP1, TFDP1 gene, pRB, gene expression.
Assuntos
Fator de Transcrição E2F1 , Regulação da Expressão Gênica , Humanos , Fatores de Transcrição E2F/genética , Fatores de Transcrição E2F/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/genética , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/metabolismo , Genes Supressores de Tumor , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição E2F3/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição DP1/genética , Fator de Transcrição DP1/metabolismoRESUMO
BACKGROUND: The Polycomb Repressor Complex 1 (PRC1) is an epigenetic regulator of differentiation and development, consisting of multiple subunits including RING1, BMI1, and Chromobox. The composition of PRC1 dictates its function and aberrant expression of specific subunits contributes to several diseases including cancer. Specifically, the reader protein Chromobox2 (CBX2) recognizes the repressive modifications including histone H3 lysine 27 tri-methylation (H3K27me3) and H3 lysine 9 dimethylation (H3K9me2). CBX2 is overexpressed in several cancers compared to the non-transformed cell counterparts, it promotes both cancer progression and chemotherapy resistance. Thus, inhibiting the reader function of CBX2 is an attractive and unique anti-cancer approach. RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODS: Compared with other CBX family members, CBX2 has a unique A/T-hook DNA binding domain that is juxtaposed to the chromodomain (CD). Using a computational approach, we constructed a homology model of CBX2 encompassing the CD and A/T hook domain. We used the model as a basis for peptide design and identified blocking peptides that are predicted to directly bind the CD and A/T-hook regions of CBX2. These peptides were tested in vitro and in vivo models. CONCLUSION: The CBX2 blocking peptide significantly inhibited both 2D and 3D growth of ovarian cancer cells, downregulated a CBX2 target gene, and blunted tumor growth in vivo.
Assuntos
Neoplasias , Complexo Repressor Polycomb 1 , Humanos , Complexo Repressor Polycomb 1/metabolismo , Lisina , Proteínas do Grupo Polycomb , PeptídeosRESUMO
Euchromatic histone lysine methyltransferases 1 and 2 (EHMT1/2), which catalyze demethylation of histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9me2), contribute to tumorigenesis and therapy resistance through unknown mechanisms of action. In ovarian cancer, EHMT1/2 and H3K9me2 are directly linked to acquired resistance to poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors and are correlated with poor clinical outcomes. Using a combination of experimental and bioinformatic analyses in several PARP inhibitor resistant ovarian cancer models, we demonstrate that combinatory inhibition of EHMT and PARP is effective in treating PARP inhibitor resistant ovarian cancers. Our in vitro studies show that combinatory therapy reactivates transposable elements, increases immunostimulatory dsRNA formation, and elicits several immune signaling pathways. Our in vivo studies show that both single inhibition of EHMT and combinatory inhibition of EHMT and PARP reduces tumor burden, and that this reduction is dependent on CD8 T cells. Together, our results uncover a direct mechanism by which EHMT inhibition helps to overcome PARP inhibitor resistance and shows how an epigenetic therapy can be used to enhance anti-tumor immunity and address therapy resistance.
RESUMO
The transcription factor E2F, the principal target of the tumor suppressor pRB, plays crucial roles in cell proliferation and tumor suppression. In almost all cancers, pRB function is disabled, and E2F activity is enhanced. To specifically target cancer cells, trials have been undertaken to suppress enhanced E2F activity to restrain cell proliferation or selectively kill cancer cells, utilizing enhanced E2F activity. However, these approaches may also impact normal growing cells, since growth stimulation also inactivates pRB and enhances E2F activity. E2F activated upon the loss of pRB control (deregulated E2F) activates tumor suppressor genes, which are not activated by E2F induced by growth stimulation, inducing cellular senescence or apoptosis to protect cells from tumorigenesis. Deregulated E2F activity is tolerated in cancer cells due to inactivation of the ARF-p53 pathway, thus representing a feature unique to cancer cells. Deregulated E2F activity, which activates tumor suppressor genes, is distinct from enhanced E2F activity, which activates growth-related genes, in that deregulated E2F activity does not depend on the heterodimeric partner DP. Indeed, the ARF promoter, which is specifically activated by deregulated E2F, showed higher cancer-cell specific activity, compared to the E2F1 promoter, which is also activated by E2F induced by growth stimulation. Thus, deregulated E2F activity is an attractive potential therapeutic tool to specifically target cancer cells.
Assuntos
Fator de Transcrição E2F1 , Neoplasias , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/genética , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição E2F/metabolismo , Genes Supressores de Tumor , Apoptose , Regiões Promotoras Genéticas , Neoplasias/genéticaRESUMO
Melanoma is an aggressive, deadly skin cancer derived from melanocytes, a neural crest cell derivative. Melanoma cells mirror the developmental program of neural crest cells in that they exhibit the same gene expression patterns and utilize similar cellular mechanisms, including increased cell proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and migration. Here we studied the role of neural crest regulator PRDM1 in melanoma onset and progression. In development, Prdm1a functions to promote neural crest progenitor fate, and in melanoma, we found that PRDM1 has reduced copy number and is recurrently deleted in both zebrafish and humans. When examining expression of neural crest and melanocyte development genes, we show that sox10 progenitor expression is high in prdm1a-/- mutants, while more differentiated melanocyte markers are reduced, suggesting that normally Prdm1a is required for differentiation. Data mining of human melanoma datasets indicates that high PRDM1 expression in human melanoma is correlated with better patient survival and decreased PRDM1 expression is common in metastatic tumors. When one copy of prdm1a is lost in the zebrafish melanoma model Tg(mitfa:BRAFV600E );p53-/- ;prdm1a+/- , melanoma onset occurs more quickly, and the tumors that form have a larger area with increased expression of sox10. These data demonstrate a novel role for PRDM1 as a tumor suppressor in melanoma.
Assuntos
Regulação da Expressão Gênica no Desenvolvimento , Regulação Neoplásica da Expressão Gênica , Melanócitos/patologia , Melanoma/patologia , Fator 1 de Ligação ao Domínio I Regulador Positivo/metabolismo , Proteínas de Peixe-Zebra/metabolismo , Peixe-Zebra/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Animais , Diferenciação Celular , Células Cultivadas , Progressão da Doença , Humanos , Melanócitos/metabolismo , Melanoma/genética , Melanoma/metabolismo , Fator 1 de Ligação ao Domínio I Regulador Positivo/genética , Prognóstico , Taxa de Sobrevida , Peixe-Zebra/metabolismo , Proteínas de Peixe-Zebra/genéticaRESUMO
The transcription factor E2F plays crucial roles in cell proliferation and tumor suppression by activating growth-related genes and pro-apoptotic tumor suppressor genes, respectively. It is generally accepted that E2F binds to target sequences with its heterodimeric partner DP. Here we show that, while knockdown of DP1 expression inhibited ectopic E2F1- or adenovirus E1a-induced expression of the CDC6 gene and cell proliferation, knockdown of DP1 and DP2 expression did not affect ectopic E2F1- or E1a-induced expression of the tumor suppressor ARF gene, an upstream activator of the tumor suppressor p53, activation of p53 or apoptosis. These observations suggest that growth related and pro-apoptotic E2F targets are regulated by distinct molecular mechanisms and contradict the threshold model, which postulates that E2F activation of pro-apoptotic genes requires a higher total activity of activator E2Fs, above that necessary for E2F-dependent activation of growth-related genes.
Assuntos
Fator de Transcrição E2F1/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição DP1/metabolismo , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/metabolismo , Fatores de Ribosilação do ADP/genética , Fatores de Ribosilação do ADP/metabolismo , Apoptose , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/genética , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/metabolismo , Linhagem Celular , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/antagonistas & inibidores , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Dimerização , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/química , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/genética , Fibroblastos/citologia , Fibroblastos/metabolismo , Humanos , Regiões Promotoras Genéticas , Interferência de RNA , RNA Interferente Pequeno/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição DP1/antagonistas & inibidores , Fator de Transcrição DP1/genética , Fatores de Transcrição/antagonistas & inibidores , Fatores de Transcrição/genética , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismoRESUMO
In cancer treatment, specifically targeting cancer cells is important for optimal therapeutic efficacy. One strategy is to utilize a cancer specific promoter to express a cytotoxic gene or a viral gene required for replication. In this approach, the therapeutic window is dependent on the relative promoter activity in cancer cells versus normal cells. Therefore, a promoter with optimal cancer cell-specificity should be used. The tumor suppressor ARF promoter, which specifically responds to deregulated E2F activity, is a potent candidate. Defects in the RB pathway resulting in deregulated E2F activity are observed in almost all cancers. Furthermore, the ARF promoter exhibits greater cancer cell specificity than the E2F1 promoter and consequently, adenovirus expressing HSV-TK under the control of the ARF promoter (Ad-ARF-TK) has more selective cytotoxicity in cancer cells than the analogous E2F1 construct. Ideally, cancer specific gene expression driven by the ARF promoter could be enhanced for optimal therapeutic efficacy, with minimal side effects. We show here that ectopic expression of the CDK inhibitor p21Cip1 enhanced deregulated E2F activity and pro-apoptotic E2F target gene expression in cancer cells. Moreover, ectopic expression of p21Cip1 augmented cancer specific cytotoxicity of Ad-ARF-TK, and apoptosis induced by p21Cip1 was dependent on deregulated E2F activity. These results suggest that p21Cip1 specifically enhances deregulated E2F activity and that a combination of the CDK inhibitor with Ad-ARF-TK could be effectively employed for cancer therapy.
Assuntos
Inibidor de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina p21/genética , Inibidor de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina p21/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição E2F/genética , Fatores de Transcrição E2F/metabolismo , Genes p16 , Apoptose , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , Inibidor p16 de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina , Inibidor de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina p18/genética , Inibidor de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina p18/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/genética , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/metabolismo , Expressão Ectópica do Gene , Regulação Neoplásica da Expressão Gênica , Humanos , Neoplasias/genética , Neoplasias/metabolismo , Neoplasias/patologia , Regiões Promotoras GenéticasRESUMO
The transcription factor E2F plays crucial roles in tumor suppression by activating pro-apoptotic genes such as the tumor suppressor ARF. The regulation of the ARF gene is distinct from that of growth-related E2F targets, in that it is specifically activated by deregulated E2F activity, induced by over-expression of E2F or forced inactivation of pRB, but not by physiological E2F activity induced by growth stimulation. The phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinase (PI3K) pathway was reported to suppress expression of some atypical pro-apoptotic genes by over-expressed E2F1. However, the effects of the PI3K pathway on the distinct regulation of typical pro-apoptotic E2F targets have not been elucidated. We examined whether the PI3K pathway suppressed activation of the typical pro-apoptotic E2F targets ARF and BIM. Activation of the PI3K pathway by growth stimulation or introduction of a constitutively active Akt/PKB did not reduce induction of ARF or BIM gene expression or activation of their promoters by over-expressed E2F1. These results suggest that the PI3K pathway does not suppress induction of typical pro-apoptotic genes that are selectively activated by deregulated E2F1.
Assuntos
Proteína 11 Semelhante a Bcl-2/metabolismo , Inibidor de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina p18/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/metabolismo , Regulação da Expressão Gênica , Fosfatidilinositol 3-Quinases/metabolismo , Apoptose , Inibidor p16 de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina , Fibroblastos/metabolismo , Humanos , Proteína do Retinoblastoma/metabolismo , Transdução de SinaisRESUMO
INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS: The uterosacral (USL) and cardinal ligaments (CL) provide support to the uterus and pelvic organs, and the round ligaments (RL) maintain their position in the pelvis. In women with pelvic organ prolapse (POP), the connective tissue, smooth muscle, vasculature, and innervation of the pelvic support structures are altered. Rodents are commonly used animal models for POP research. However, the pelvic ligaments have not been defined in these animals. In this study, we hypothesized that the gross anatomy and histological composition of pelvic ligaments in rodents and humans are similar. METHODS: We performed an extensive literature search for anatomical and histological descriptions of the pelvic support ligaments in rodents. We also performed anatomical dissections of the pelvis to define anatomical landmarks in relation to the ligaments. In addition, we identified the histological components of the pelvic ligaments and performed quantitative analysis of the smooth muscle bundles and connective tissue of the USL and RL. RESULTS: The anatomy of the USL, CL, and RL and their anatomical landmarks are similar in mice, rats, and humans. All species contain the same cellular components and have similar histological architecture. However, the cervical portion of the mouse USL and RL contain more smooth muscle and less connective tissue compared with rat and human ligaments. CONCLUSION: The pelvic support structures of rats and mice are anatomically and histologically similar to those of humans. We propose that both mice and rats are appropriate, cost-effective models for directed studies in POP research.
Assuntos
Ligamentos/anatomia & histologia , Modelos Animais , Pelve/anatomia & histologia , Útero/anatomia & histologia , Vagina/anatomia & histologia , Animais , Tecido Conjuntivo/patologia , Feminino , Humanos , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Músculo Liso/patologia , Prolapso de Órgão Pélvico/patologia , Ratos , Ratos Sprague-DawleyRESUMO
The transcription factor E2F is the principal target of the tumor suppressor pRB. E2F plays crucial roles not only in cell proliferation by activating growth-related genes but also in tumor suppression by activating pro-apoptotic and growth-suppressive genes. We previously reported that, in human normal fibroblasts, the tumor suppressor genes ARF, p27(Kip1) and TAp73 are activated by deregulated E2F activity induced by forced inactivation of pRB, but not by physiological E2F activity induced by growth stimulation. In contrast, growth-related E2F targets are activated by both E2F activities, underscoring the roles of deregulated E2F in tumor suppression in the context of dysfunctional pRB. In this study, to further understand the roles of deregulated E2F, we explored new targets that are specifically activated by deregulated E2F using DNA microarray. The analysis identified nine novel targets (BIM, RASSF1, PPP1R13B, JMY, MOAP1, RBM38, ABTB1, RBBP4 and RBBP7), many of which are involved in the p53 and RB tumor suppressor pathways. Among these genes, the BIM gene was shown to be activated via atypical E2F-responsive promoter elements and to contribute to E2F1-mediated apoptosis. Our results underscore crucial roles of deregulated E2F in growth suppression to counteract loss of pRB function.
Assuntos
Proteínas Reguladoras de Apoptose/genética , Fatores de Transcrição E2F/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição E2F1/metabolismo , Fibroblastos/metabolismo , Genes Supressores de Tumor , Proteínas de Membrana/genética , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas/genética , Apoptose , Proteína 11 Semelhante a Bcl-2 , Linhagem Celular , Regiões Promotoras GenéticasRESUMO
INTRODUCTION: Triple-negative breast cancers, particularly the claudin-low subtype, are highly aggressive and exhibit increased tumor-initiating cell (TIC) characteristics. In this study, we demonstrate that vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGF-C) is highly expressed in the claudin-low breast cancer subtype and also that it mediates tumor progression, not only through its role in lymphangiogenesis but also through regulating TIC characteristics and the response to reactive oxygen species (ROS). METHODS: VEGF C expression was examined in breast cancer subtypes, and a VEGF C expression signature was derived. VEGF C expression and/or its associated signature was correlated with TIC and chemoresistance signatures. In vitro and in vivo assays were performed to determine whether VEGF-C expression alters TIC characteristics and the response of breast cancer cells to chemotherapy and oxidative stress. Array analysis was used to identify a downstream effector of VEGF-C, superoxide dismutase 3 (Sod3), which was tested for its involvement in VEGF-C-mediated resistance to oxidative stress and enhancement of in vivo metastasis. The VEGF-C-associated receptor neuropilin 2 (Nrp2) was knocked down to determine whether it is required for the observed effects of VEGF-C. Expression of VEGF C and Sod3 was assessed in human breast cancers. RESULTS: VEGF C is highly expressed in claudin-low breast cancers, and VEGF C and the VEGF C signature are associated with TIC-related gene signatures. VEGF-C-knockdown in mammary carcinoma cells decreases TIC properties in vitro and in vivo, sensitizing cells to oxidative stress and chemotherapy. We identified Sod3 as a target of VEGF-C in breast cancer cells by demonstrating that it is required for VEGF-C-mediated cell survival in response to oxidative stress and for VEGF-C-mediated metastasis. We demonstrate that Nrp2 is the VEGF-C-associated receptor that mediates alterations in Sod3 expression and the response of tumor cells to oxidative stress. We show that VEGF C and Sod3 are positively associated in human breast cancer. CONCLUSIONS: We describe a novel mechanism by which VEGF-C contributes to metastasis via its ability to enhance TIC-associated characteristics, particularly the response to ROS. We identified Sod3 as a critical mediator of VEGF-C-induced metastasis, and we provide evidence that the VEGF-C-Sod3 axis plays a role in human breast cancers.
Assuntos
Neoplasias da Mama/enzimologia , Neoplasias Pulmonares/enzimologia , Superóxido Dismutase/metabolismo , Fator C de Crescimento do Endotélio Vascular/fisiologia , Aldeído Desidrogenase/metabolismo , Animais , Antioxidantes/metabolismo , Neoplasias da Mama/patologia , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , Claudinas/metabolismo , Progressão da Doença , Intervalo Livre de Doença , Feminino , Técnicas de Silenciamento de Genes , Humanos , Neoplasias Pulmonares/secundário , Camundongos Endogâmicos BALB C , Transplante de Neoplasias , Células-Tronco Neoplásicas/metabolismo , Estresse Oxidativo , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismoRESUMO
In current cancer treatment protocols, such as radiation and chemotherapy, side effects on normal cells are major obstacles to radical therapy. To avoid these side effects, a cancer cell-specific approach is needed. One way to specifically target cancer cells is to utilize a cancer specific promoter to express a cytotoxic gene (suicide gene therapy) or a viral gene required for viral replication (oncolytic virotherapy). For this purpose, the selected promoter should have minimal activity in normal cells to avoid side effects, and high activity in a wide variety of cancers to obtain optimal therapeutic efficacy. In contrast to the AFP, CEA and PSA promoters, which have high activity only in a limited spectrum of tumors, the E2F1 promoter exhibits high activity in wide variety of cancers. This is based on the mechanism of carcinogenesis. Defects in the RB pathway and activation of the transcription factor E2F, the main target of the RB pathway, are observed in almost all cancers. Consequently, the E2F1 promoter, which is mainly regulated by E2F, has high activity in wide variety of cancers. However, E2F is also activated by growth stimulation in normal growing cells, suggesting that the E2F1 promoter may also be highly active in normal growing cells. In contrast, we found that the tumor suppressor ARF promoter is activated by deregulated E2F activity, induced by forced inactivation of pRB, but does not respond to physiological E2F activity induced by growth stimulation. We also found that the deregulated E2F activity, which activates the ARF promoter, is detected only in cancer cell lines. These observations suggest that ARF promoter is activated by E2F only in cancer cells and therefore may be more cancer cell-specific than E2F1 promoter to drive gene expression. We show here that the ARF promoter has lower activity in normal growing fibroblasts and shows higher cancer cell-specificity compared to the E2F1 promoter. We also demonstrate that adenovirus expressing HSV-TK under the control of the ARF promoter shows lower cytotoxicity than that of the E2F1 promoter, in normal growing fibroblasts but has equivalent cytotoxicity in cancer cell lines. These results suggest that the ARF promoter, which is specifically activated by deregulated E2F activity, is an excellent candidate to drive therapeutic cytotoxic gene expression, specifically in cancer cells.
Assuntos
Fator de Transcrição E2F1/genética , Neoplasias Experimentais/genética , Neoplasias Experimentais/terapia , Regiões Promotoras Genéticas/genética , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p14ARF/genética , Proteínas Supressoras de Tumor/genética , Apoptose/genética , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , Genes Transgênicos Suicidas/genética , Genes Supressores de Tumor , Terapia Genética/métodos , HumanosRESUMO
INTRODUCTION: Mammary-specific overexpression of Six1 in mice induces tumors that resemble human breast cancer, some having undergone epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and exhibiting stem/progenitor cell features. Six1 overexpression in human breast cancer cells promotes EMT and metastatic dissemination. We hypothesized that Six1 plays a role in the tumor initiating cell (TIC) population specifically in certain subtypes of breast cancer, and that by understanding its mechanism of action, we could potentially develop new means to target TICs. METHODS: We examined gene expression datasets to determine the breast cancer subtypes with Six1 overexpression, and then examined its expression in the CD24low/CD44+ putative TIC population in human luminal breast cancers xenografted through mice and in luminal breast cancer cell lines. Six1 overexpression, or knockdown, was performed in different systems to examine how Six1 levels affect TIC characteristics, using gene expression and flow cytometric analysis, tumorsphere assays, and in vivo TIC assays in immunocompromised and immune-competent mice. We examined the molecular pathways by which Six1 influences TICs using genetic/inhibitor approaches in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we examined the expression of Six1 and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK) in human breast cancers. RESULTS: High levels of Six1 are associated with adverse outcomes in luminal breast cancers, particularly the luminal B subtype. Six1 levels are enriched in the CD24low/CD44+ TIC population in human luminal breast cancers xenografted through mice, and in tumorsphere cultures in MCF7 and T47D luminal breast cancer cells. When overexpressed in MCF7 cells, Six1expands the TIC population through activation of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß) and mitogen activated protein kinase (MEK)/ERK signaling. Inhibition of ERK signaling in MCF7-Six1 cells with MEK1/2 inhibitors, U0126 and AZD6244, restores the TIC population of luminal breast cancer cells back to that observed in control cells. Administration of AZD6244 dramatically inhibits tumor formation efficiency and metastasis in cells that express high levels of Six1 ectopically or endogenously. Finally, we demonstrate that Six1 significantly correlates with phosphorylated ERK in human breast cancers. CONCLUSIONS: Six1 plays an important role in the TIC population in luminal breast cancers and induces a TIC phenotype by enhancing both TGF-ß and ERK signaling. MEK1/2 kinase inhibitors are potential candidates for targeting TICs in breast tumors.