Advances in aptamer-based biosensors for monitoring foodborne pathogens.

Biosensors are analytical devices for detecting a wide range of targets, including cells, proteins, DNA, enzymes, and chemical and biological compounds. They mostly rely on using bioprobes with a high binding affinity to the target for specific detection. However, low specificity and effectiveness of the conventional biosensors has led to the search for novel materials, that can specifically detect biomolecules. Aptamers are a group of single-stranded DNA or RNA oligonucleotides, that can bind to their targets with high specificity and serve as effective bioprobes for developing aptamer-based biosensors. Aptamers have a shorter production time, high stability, compared to traditional bioprobes, and possess ability to develop them for specific target molecules for tailored applications. Thus, various aptasensing approaches, including electrochemical, optical, surface plasmon resonance and chip-dependent approaches, have been investigated in recent times for various biological targets, including foodborne pathogens. Hence, this article is an overview of various conventional foodborne pathogen detection methods, their limitations and the ability of aptamer-based biosensors to overcome those limitations and replace them. In addition, the current status and advances in aptamer-based biosensors for the detection of foodborne pathogens to ensure food safety were also discussed. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05889-8.

Emerging Biohybrids of Aptamer-Based Nano-Biosensing Technologies for Effective Early Cancer Detection.

Cancer is a leading global cause of mortality, which underscores the imperative of early detection for improved patient outcomes. Biorecognition molecules, especially aptamers, have emerged as highly effective tools for early and accurate cancer cell identification. Aptamers, with superior versatility in synthesis and modification, offer enhanced binding specificity and stability compared with conventional antibodies. Hence, this article reviews diagnostic strategies employing aptamer-based biohybrid nano-biosensing technologies, focusing on their utility in detecting cancer biomarkers and abnormal cells. Recent developments include the synthesis of nano-aptamers using diverse nanomaterials, such as metallic nanoparticles, metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon-derived substances, and biohybrid nanostructures. The integration of these nanomaterials with aptamers significantly enhances sensitivity and specificity, promising innovative and efficient approaches for cancer diagnosis. This convergence of nanotechnology with aptamer research holds the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment through rapid, accurate, and non-invasive diagnostic methods.

Sustainable synthesis of bionanomaterials using non-native plant extracts for maintaining ecological balance: A computational bibliography analysis.

Biological approaches via biomolecular extracts of bacteria, fungi, or plants have recently been introduced as an alternative approach to synthesizing less or nontoxic nanomaterials, compared to conventional physical and chemical approaches. Among these biological methods, plant-mediated approaches (phytosynthesis) are reported to be highly beneficial for large-scale, nontoxic nanomaterial synthesis. However, plant-mediated synthesis of nanomaterials using native plant extract can lead to bioprospecting issues and deforestation challenges. On the other hand, non-native or invasive plants are non-indigenous to a particular geographic location that can grow and spread rapidly, ultimately disrupting the local and endogenous plant communities or ecosystems. Thus, controlling or eradicating these non-native plants before they damage the ecosystem is necessary. Even though mechanical, chemical, and biological approaches are available to control non-native plants, all these methods possess certain limitations, such as environmental toxicity, disturbance in the nutrient cycle, and loss of genetic integrity. Therefore, non-native plants were recently proposed as a novel sustainable source of phytochemicals for preparing nanomaterials via green chemistry, mainly metallic nanoparticles, as an alternative to native, agriculture-based, or medicinal plants. This work aims to cover a literature gap on plant-mediated bionanomaterial synthesis with an overview and bibliography analysis of non-native plants via novel data mining and advanced visualization tools. In addition, the potential of non-native plants as a sustainable, green chemistry-based alternative for bionanomaterial preparation for maintaining ecological balance, the mechanism of formation via phytochemicals, and their possible applications to promote their control and spread were also discussed. The bibliography analysis revealed that only an average of 4 articles have been published in the last 10 years (2013-2023) on non-native/invasive plants for nanomaterial synthesis, which shows the significance of this article.

Magnetic Nanoparticles for Protein Separation and Purification.

Proteins are essential for various functions such as brain activity and muscle contraction in humans. Even though food is a source of proteins, the bioavailability of proteins in most foods is usually limited due to matrix interaction with other biomolecules. Thus, it is essential to extract these proteins and provide them as a nutraceutical supplement to maintain protein levels and avoid protein deficiency. Hence, protein purification and extraction from natural sources are highly significant in biomedical applications. Chromatography, crude mechanical disruption, use of extractive chemicals, and electrophoresis are some of the methods applied to isolate specific proteins. Even though these methods possess several advantages, they are unable to extract specific proteins with high purity. A suitable alternative is the use of nanoparticles, which can be beneficial in protein purification and extraction. Notably, magnetic iron and iron-based nanoparticles have been employed in protein extraction processes and can be reused via demagnetization due to their magnetic property, smaller size, morphology, high surface-to-volume ratio, and surface charge-mediated property. This chapter is a summary of various magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) that can be used for the biomolecular separation of proteins.

Phytochemicals and bioactive compounds effective against acute myeloid leukemia: A systematic review.

This systematic review identified various bioactive compounds which have the potential to serve as novel drugs or leads against acute myeloid leukemia. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogeneous hematopoietic malignancy that arises from the dysregulation of cell differentiation, proliferation, and cell death. The risk factors associated with the onset of AML include long-term exposure to radiation and chemicals such as benzene, smoking, genetic disorders, blood disorders, advancement in age, and others. Although novel strategies to manage AML, including a refinement of the conventional chemotherapy regimens, hypomethylating agents, and molecular targeted drugs, have been developed in recent years, resistance and relapse remain the main clinical problems. In this study, three databases, PubMed/MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, were systematically searched to identify various bioactive compounds with antileukemic properties. A total of 518 articles were identified, out of which 59 were viewed as eligible for the current report. From the data extracted, over 60 bioactive compounds were identified and divided into five major groups: flavonoids, alkaloids, organosulfur compounds, terpenes, and terpenoids, and other known and emerging bioactive compounds. The mechanism of actions of the analyzed individual bioactive molecules differs remarkably and includes disrupting chromatin structure, upregulating the synthesis of certain DNA repair proteins, inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and inhibiting/regulating Hsp90 activities, DNA methyltransferase 1, and histone deacetylase 1.

Enhanced alpha-amylase inhibition activity of amine-terminated PAMAM dendrimer stabilized pure copper-doped magnesium oxide nanoparticles.

The present work aims to prepare copper-doped MgO nanoparticles via a sol-gel approach and study their antidiabetic alpha-amylase inhibition activity with undoped MgO nanoparticles. The ability of G5 amine-terminated polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer for the controlled release of copper-doped MgO nanoparticles to exhibit alpha-amylase inhibition activity was also evaluated. The synthesis of MgO nanoparticles via sol-gel approach and optimization of calcination temperature and time has led to the formation of nanoparticles with different shapes (spherical, hexagonal, and rod-shaped) and a polydispersity in size ranging from 10 to 100 nm with periclase crystalline phase. The presence of copper ions in the MgO nanoparticles has altered their crystallite size, eventually modifying their size, morphology, and surface charge. The efficiency of dendrimer to stabilize spherical copper-doped MgO nanoparticles (ca. 30 %) is higher than in other samples, which was confirmed by UV-Visible, DLS, FTIR, and TEM analysis. The amylase inhibition assay emphasized that the dendrimer nanoparticles stabilization has led to the prolonged enzyme inhibition ability of MgO and copper-doped MgO nanoparticles for up to 24 h.

Target-Specific Delivery and Bioavailability of Pharmaceuticals via Janus and Dendrimer Particles.

Nanosized Janus and dendrimer particles have emerged as promising nanocarriers for the target-specific delivery and improved bioavailability of pharmaceuticals. Janus particles, with two distinct regions exhibiting different physical and chemical properties, provide a unique platform for the simultaneous delivery of multiple drugs or tissue-specific targeting. Conversely, dendrimers are branched, nanoscale polymers with well-defined surface functionalities that can be designed for improved drug targeting and release. Both Janus particles and dendrimers have demonstrated their potential to improve the solubility and stability of poorly water-soluble drugs, increase the intracellular uptake of drugs, and reduce their toxicity by controlling the release rate. The surface functionalities of these nanocarriers can be tailored to specific targets, such as overexpressed receptors on cancer cells, leading to enhanced drug efficacy The design of these nanocarriers can be optimized by tuning the size, shape, and surface functionalities, among other parameters. The incorporation of Janus and dendrimer particles into composite materials to create hybrid systems for enhancing drug delivery, leveraging the unique properties and functionalities of both materials, can offer promising outcomes. Nanosized Janus and dendrimer particles hold great promise for the delivery and improved bioavailability of pharmaceuticals. Further research is required to optimize these nanocarriers and bring them to the clinical setting to treat various diseases. This article discusses various nanosized Janus and dendrimer particles for target-specific delivery and bioavailability of pharmaceuticals. In addition, the development of Janus-dendrimer hybrid nanoparticles to address some limitations of standalone nanosized Janus and dendrimer particles is discussed.

Novel Concepts for Graphene-Based Nanomaterials Synthesis for Phenol Removal from Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME).

In recent years, the global population has increased significantly, resulting in elevated levels of pollution in waterways. Organic pollutants are a major source of water pollution in various parts of the world, with phenolic compounds being the most common hazardous pollutant. These compounds are released from industrial effluents, such as palm oil milling effluent (POME), and cause several environmental issues. Adsorption is known to be an efficient method for mitigating water contaminants, with the ability to eliminate phenolic contaminants even at low concentrations. Carbon-based materials have been reported to be effective composite adsorbents for phenol removal due to their excellent surface features and impressive sorption capability. However, the development of novel sorbents with higher specific sorption capabilities and faster contaminant removal rates is necessary. Graphene possesses exceptionally attractive chemical, thermal, mechanical, and optical properties, including higher chemical stability, thermal conductivity, current density, optical transmittance, and surface area. The unique features of graphene and its derivatives have gained significant attention in the application of sorbents for water decontamination. Recently, the emergence of graphene-based adsorbents with large surface areas and active surfaces has been proposed as a potential alternative to conventional sorbents. The aim of this article is to discuss novel synthesis approaches for producing graphene-based nanomaterials for the adsorptive uptake of organic pollutants from water, with a special focus on phenols associated with POME. Furthermore, this article explores adsorptive properties, experimental parameters for nanomaterial synthesis, isotherms and kinetic models, mechanisms of nanomaterial formation, and the ability of graphene-based materials as adsorbents of specific contaminants.

Development of Janus Particles as Potential Drug Delivery Systems for Diabetes Treatment and Antimicrobial Applications.

Janus particles have emerged as a novel and smart material that could improve pharmaceutical formulation, drug delivery, and theranostics. Janus particles have two distinct compartments that differ in functionality, physicochemical properties, and morphological characteristics, among other conventional particles. Recently, Janus particles have attracted considerable attention as effective particulate drug delivery systems as they can accommodate two opposing pharmaceutical agents that can be engineered at the molecular level to achieve better target affinity, lower drug dosage to achieve a therapeutic effect, and controlled drug release with improved pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. This article discusses the development of Janus particles for tailored and improved delivery of pharmaceutical agents for diabetes treatment and antimicrobial applications. It provides an account of advances in the synthesis of Janus particles from various materials using different approaches. It appraises Janus particles as a promising particulate system with the potential to improve conventional delivery systems, providing a better loading capacity and targeting specificity whilst promoting multi-drugs loading and single-dose-drug administration.

Aptamer-Mediated Antiviral Approaches for SARS-CoV-2.

2020 and 2021 were disastrous years across the world, with the emergence of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS­CoV­2) virus as a pandemic, which continues to be a top global health issue. There are still many countries and regions struggling to fight coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and, with the emergence of the various variants of the virus, we are still far from considering this global pandemic over. In addition to having good diagnostic tools and a variety of vaccines with high efficacy, it is of utmost importance to develop effective antiviral drugs or therapies to battle COVID-19. Aptamers known as the next-generation targeting elements can offer promising opportunities in developing antiviral drugs against SARS-CoV-2. This is owing to their high specificity and affinity, making them ideal for targeting ligands and neutralizers to impede both, viral entry and replication or even further enhance the anti-infection effects in the infected host cells. Also, aptamers are extremely attractive as they can be rapidly synthesized and scalable with a lower production cost. This work provides in-depth discussions on the potential of aptamers in therapeutic applications, their mode of action, and current progress on the use of aptamer-based therapies against SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses. The article also discusses the limitations associated with aptamer-based SARS-CoV-2-antiviral therapy with several proposed ideas to resolve them. Lastly, theranostic applications of aptamer nanoformulated dendrimers against viral infections are discussed.

Medical applications of biopolymer nanofibers.

A wide array of biomedical applications, extending from the fabrication of implant materials to targeted drug delivery, can be attributed to polymers. The utilization of chemical monomers to form polymers, such as polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene, can provide high mechanical stability to them and they can be utilized for diverse electronic or thermal applications. However, certain chemical-based synthetic polymers are toxic to humans, animals, plants, and microbial cells. Thus, biopolymers have been introduced as an alternative to make them utilizable for biomedical applications. Even though biopolymers possess beneficial biomedical applications, they are not stable in biological fluids and exhibit toxicity in certain cases. Recent advances in nanotechnology have expanded its applicational significance in various domains, especially in the evolution of biopolymers to transform them into nanoparticles for numerous biomedical applications. In particular, biopolymers are fabricated as nanofibers to enhance their biological properties and to be utilized for exclusive biomedical applications. The aim of this review is to present an overview of various biopolymer nanofibers and their distinct synthesis approaches. In addition, the medical applications of biopolymer nanofibers, including antimicrobial agents, drug delivery systems, biosensor production, tissue engineering, and implant fabrication, are also discussed.

Recent advancements in enzyme-incorporated nanomaterials: Synthesis, mechanistic formation, and applications.

Over the past decade, nanotechnology has been developed and employed across various entities. Among the numerous nanostructured material types, enzyme-incorporated nanomaterials have shown great potential in various fields, as an alternative to biologically derived as well as synthetically developed hybrid structures. The mechanism of incorporating enzyme onto a nanostructure depends on several factors including the method of immobilization, type of nanomaterial, as well as operational and environmental conditions. The prospects of enzyme-incorporated nanomaterials have shown promising results across various applications, such as biocatalysts, biosensors, drug therapy, and wastewater treatment. This is due to their excellent ability to exhibit chemical and physical properties such as high surface-to-volume ratio, recovery and/or reusability rates, sensitivity, response scale, and stable catalytic activity across wide operating conditions. In this review, the evolution of enzyme-incorporated nanomaterials along with their impact on our society due to its state-of-the-art properties, and its significance across different industrial applications are discussed. In addition, the weakness and future prospects of enzyme-incorporated nanomaterials were also discussed to guide scientists for futuristic research and development in this field.

Green approaches for the synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles using microbial and plant extracts.

Green synthesis approaches are gaining significance as promising routes for the sustainable preparation of nanoparticles, offering reduced toxicity towards living organisms and the environment. Nanomaterials produced by green synthesis approaches can offer additional benefits, including reduced energy inputs and lower production costs than traditional synthesis, which bodes well for commercial-scale production. The biomolecules and phytochemicals extracted from microbes and plants, respectively, are active compounds that function as reducing and stabilizing agents for the green synthesis of nanoparticles. Microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeasts, fungi, and algae, have been used in nanomaterials' biological synthesis for some time. Furthermore, the use of plants or plant extracts for metal and metal-based hybrid nanoparticle synthesis represents a novel green synthesis approach that has attracted significant research interest. This review discusses various biosynthesis approaches via microbes and plants for the green preparation of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles and provides insights into the molecular aspects of the synthesis mechanisms and biomedical applications. The use of agriculture waste as a potential bioresource for nanoparticle synthesis and biomedical applications of biosynthesized nanoparticles is also discussed.

Synthesis approach-dependent antiviral properties of silver nanoparticles and nanocomposites.

Numerous viral infections are common among humans, and some can lead to death. Even though conventional antiviral agents are beneficial in eliminating viral infections, they may lead to side effects or physiological toxicity. Silver nanoparticles and nanocomposites have been demonstrated to possess inhibitory properties against several pathogenic microbes, including archaea, bacteria, fungi, algae, and viruses. Its pronounced antimicrobial activity against various microbe-mediated diseases potentiates its use in combating viral infections. Notably, the appropriated selection of the synthesis method to fabricate silver nanoparticles is a major factor for consideration as it directly impacts antiviral efficacy, level of toxicity, scalability, and environmental sustainability. Thus, this article presents and discusses various synthesis approaches to produce silver nanoparticles and nanocomposites, providing technological insights into selecting approaches to generate antiviral silver-based nanoparticles. The antiviral mechanism of various formulations of silver nanoparticles and the evaluation of its propensity to combat specific viral infections as a potential antiviral agent are also discussed.

Review on Natural, Incidental, Bioinspired, and Engineered Nanomaterials: History, Definitions, Classifications, Synthesis, Properties, Market, Toxicities, Risks, and Regulations.

Nanomaterials are becoming important materials in several fields and industries thanks to their very reduced size and shape-related features. Scientists think that nanoparticles and nanostructured materials originated during the Big Bang process from meteorites leading to the formation of the universe and Earth. Since 1990, the term nanotechnology became very popular due to advances in imaging technologies that paved the way to specific industrial applications. Currently, nanoparticles and nanostructured materials are synthesized on a large scale and are indispensable for many industries. This fact fosters and supports research in biochemistry, biophysics, and biochemical engineering applications. Recently, nanotechnology has been combined with other sciences to fabricate new forms of nanomaterials that could be used, for instance, for diagnostic tools, drug delivery systems, energy generation/storage, environmental remediation as well as agriculture and food processing. In contrast with traditional materials, specific features can be integrated into nanoparticles, nanostructures, and nanosystems by simply modifying their scale, shape, and composition. This article first summarizes the history of nanomaterials and nanotechnology. Followed by the progress that led to improved synthesis processes to produce different nanoparticles and nanostructures characterized by specific features. The content finally presents various origins and sources of nanomaterials, synthesis strategies, their toxicity, risks, regulations, and self-aggregation.

Nanocellulose-Based Materials for Water Treatment: Adsorption, Photocatalytic Degradation, Disinfection, Antifouling, and Nanofiltration.

Nanocelluloses are promising bio-nano-materials for use as water treatment materials in environmental protection and remediation. Over the past decades, they have been integrated via novel nanoengineering approaches for water treatment processes. This review aims at giving an overview of nanocellulose requirements concerning emerging nanotechnologies of waster treatments and purification, i.e., adsorption, absorption, flocculation, photocatalytic degradation, disinfection, antifouling, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis. Firstly, the nanocellulose synthesis methods (mechanical, physical, chemical, and biological), unique properties (sizes, geometries, and surface chemistry) were presented and their use for capturing and removal of wastewater pollutants was explained. Secondly, different chemical modification approaches surface functionalization (with functional groups, polymers, and nanoparticles) for enhancing the surface chemistry of the nanocellulose for enabling the effective removal of specific pollutants (suspended particles, microorganisms, hazardous metals ions, organic dyes, drugs, pesticides fertilizers, and oils) were highlighted. Thirdly, new fabrication approaches (solution casting, thermal treatment, electrospinning, 3D printing) that integrated nanocelluloses (spherical nanoparticles, nanowhiskers, nanofibers) to produce water treatment materials (individual composite nanoparticles, hydrogels, aerogels, sponges, membranes, and nanopapers) were covered. Finally, the major challenges and future perspectives concerning the applications of nanocellulose based materials in water treatment and purification were highlighted.

Therapeutic Applications of Metal and Metal-Oxide Nanoparticles: Dermato-Cosmetic Perspectives.

Invention of novel nanomaterials guaranteeing enhanced biomedical performance in diagnostics and therapeutics, is a perpetual initiative. In this regard, the upsurge and widespread usage of nanoparticles is a ubiquitous phenomenon, focusing predominantly on the application of submicroscopic (< 100 nm) particles. While this is facilitated attributing to their wide range of benefits, a major challenge is to create and maintain a balance, by alleviating the associated toxicity levels. In this minireview, we collate and discuss particularly recent advancements in therapeutic applications of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles in skin and cosmetic applications. On the one hand, we outline the dermatological intrusions, including applications in wound healing. On the other hand, we keep track of the recent trends in the development of cosmeceuticals via nanoparticle engrossments. The dermato-cosmetic applications of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles encompass diverse aspects, including targeted, controlled drug release, and conferring ultraviolet and antimicrobial protections to the skin. Additionally, we deliberate on the critical aspects in comprehending the advantage of rheological assessments, while characterizing the nanoparticulate systems. As an illustration, we single out psoriasis, to capture and comment on the nanodermatology-based curative standpoints. Finally, we lay a broad outlook and examine the imminent prospects.

Toxicity of Nanoparticles in Biomedical Application: Nanotoxicology.

Nanoparticles are of great importance in development and research because of their application in industries and biomedicine. The development of nanoparticles requires proper knowledge of their fabrication, interaction, release, distribution, target, compatibility, and functions. This review presents a comprehensive update on nanoparticles' toxic effects, the factors underlying their toxicity, and the mechanisms by which toxicity is induced. Recent studies have found that nanoparticles may cause serious health effects when exposed to the body through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact without caution. The extent to which toxicity is induced depends on some properties, including the nature and size of the nanoparticle, the surface area, shape, aspect ratio, surface coating, crystallinity, dissolution, and agglomeration. In all, the general mechanisms by which it causes toxicity lie on its capability to initiate the formation of reactive species, cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and neurotoxicity, among others.

Bioactive Compounds Effective Against Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes (adult onset diabetes) is the most common type of diabetes, accounting for around 90% of all diabetes cases with insulin resistance and insulin secretion defect. The key goal of anti-diabetic therapy is to increase the development of insulin, immunity and/or decrease the amount of blood glucose. While many synthetic compounds have been produced as antidiabetic agents, due to their side effects and limited effectiveness, their usefulness has been hindered. METHODS: This systematic review investigated the bioactive compounds reported to possess activities against type 2 diabetes. Three (3) databases, PubMed, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar were searched for research articles published between January 2010 and October 2020. A total of 6464 articles were identified out of which 84 articles were identified to be elligible for the study. RESULT AND DISCUSSION: From the data extracted, it was found that quercetin, Kaempferol, Rosmarinic acid, Cyanidin, Rutin, Catechin, Luteolin and Ellagic acid were the most cited bioactive compounds which all falls within the class of polyphenolic compounds. The major sources of these bioactive compounds includes citrus fruits, grapes, onions, berries, cherries, broccoli, honey, apples, green tea, Ginkgo biloba, St. John's wort, green beans, cucumber, spinach, tea, Rosmarinus officinalis, Aloe vera, Moringa oleifera, tomatoes, potatoes, oregano, lemon balm, thyme, peppermint, Ocimum basilicum, red cabbage, pears, olive oil and walnut.

Emerging marine derived nanohydroxyapatite and their composites for implant and biomedical applications.

Implant materials must mimic natural human bones with biocompatibility, osteoconductivity and mechanical stability to successfully replace damaged or disease-affected bones. Synthetic hydroxyapatite was incorporated with bioglass to mimic natural bones for replacing conventional implant materials which has led to certain toxicity issues. Hence, hydroxyapatite (HAp) are recently gaining applicational importance as they are resembling the structure and function of natural bones. Further, nanosized HAp is under extensive research to utilize them as a potential replacement for traditional implants with several exclusive properties. However, chemical synthesis of nano-HAp exhibited toxicity towards normal and healthy cells. Recently, biogenic Hap synthesis from marine and animal sources are introduced as a next generation implant materials, due to their mineral ion and significant porous architecture mediated biocompatibility and bone bonding ability, compared to synthetic HAp. Thus, the purpose of the paper is to give a bird's eye view into the conventional approaches for fabricating nano-HAp, its limitations and the significance of using marine organisms and marine food wastes as a precursor for biogenic nano-Hap production. Moreover, in vivo and in vitro analyses of marine source derived nano-HAp and their potential biomedical applications were also discussed.