Uncovering the impact of metals on the formation and physicochemical properties of fat, oil and grease deposits in the sewer system.

The deposition of fats, oil, and grease (FOG) in sewers reduces conveyance capacity and leads to sanitary sewer overflows. The major contributing factor lies in the indiscriminate disposal of used cooking oil (UCO) via kitchen sinks. While prior investigations have mostly highlighted the significance of Ca2+ from concrete biocorrosion, the influence of common metal ions (e.g., Mg2+, Na+, K+) found in kitchen wastewater on FOG deposition has received limited attention in the existing literature. This study aimed to elucidate the roles of Ca, Mg, Na and K in FOG deposition in sewers and examine the influence of metal ions, fat/oil sources, and free fatty acids (FFAs) on the physicochemical and rheological properties of FOG deposits. To examine FOG deposit formation, synthetic wastewater containing 0.1 g/L of each metal ion was mixed with 40 mL of fat/oil and agitated for 8 h. Following FOG deposition, three distinct phases were observed: unreacted oil, FOG deposit and wastewater. The composition of these phases was influenced by the composition of metal ions and FFA in the wastewater. Mg produced the highest amount of FOG of 242.5 ± 10.6 mL compared to Ca (72.5 ± 3.5 mL) when each FFAs content in UCO was increased by 10 mg/mL. Molar concentration, valency and the solubility of metal ion sources were identified to influence the formation of FOG deposits via saponification and aggregation reaction. Furthermore, Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy indicated that the FOG deposits in this study were similar to those collected from the field. This study showed that the use of Mg(OH)2 as a biocorrosion control measure would increase FOG deposition and highlights the need for a comprehensive understanding of its roles in real sewage systems.

Hydroxyl radical mediated extracellular degradation of tetracycline under aerobic and anaerobic conditions stimulated by bio-FeS nanoparticles.

The extracellular degradation of antibiotics facilitated by bio-nanoparticles is significant in the field of waste valorization. Among different bio-nanoparticles, bio-FeS nanoparticles stand out for their convenient and cost-effective synthesis. Nevertheless, there is a lack of understanding regarding the extracellular degradation of pollutants driven by bio-FeS nanoparticles. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the role of bio-FeS nanoparticles in the extracellular degradation of tetracycline under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The findings demonstrated that bio-FeS nanoparticles generated hydroxyl radical (·OH), which significantly contributes to the degradation of tetracycline in both aerobic and anaerobic environments. The production of ·OH in anaerobic conditions was primarily attributed to the limited formation of FeS2 during the biosynthesis of nanoparticles, which was very different from aerobic conditions. The bio-FeS nanoparticles facilitated extracellular electron transport by promoting electron shuttles and Fe(II)/Fe(III) cycling, resulting in the continuous production of ·OH. The degradation pathways showed differences under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, with intermediates exhibiting higher toxicity and greater cellular damage under aerobic conditions. However, in anaerobic conditions, bio-FeS nanoparticles enabled the successful integration of intracellular and extracellular degradation of tetracycline. This research proposed a new avenue for biocatalysis and environmental remediation.

Assessment of an eco-efficient process for the optimization of metal recovery in lithium cobalt oxide and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide batteries.

The expansion of technology motivates the increase of global demands for critical minerals. In this context, the exploration of secondary sources of these components is expanding. End-of-life batteries can be seen as potential sources of lithium, cobalt, nickel and manganese for electric vehicles or diverse applications in electronic equipments. This paper provides a comprehensive evaluation of the recovery of metals from waste batteries with diverse chemistry composition. Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) and lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NMC) batteries were co-treated with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) channels under supercritical water, varying reaction temperature (400-600 °C) and PVC/Battery composition (0-3 m/m) in a tubular continuous reactor. Results show high recovery rates for all metals, with up to 90% percentage recovery of lithium and cobalt in all cases. Temperature and feed composition were identified as determining factors for the recovery of lithium from LCO batteries. In the case of cobalt, temperature was identified as the most important factor that affects its recovery. The selected optimal conditions for cobalt recovery in the solid products of reactions were identified for batteries LCO and NMC: temperature of 600 °C and PVC/Battery ratio of 3.0 and temperature of 500 °C and PVC/Battery ratio of 1.5, respectively. Environmental impacts, primarily Global Warming Potential (GWP), were minimal, with 4.71·10-5 kg CO2 eq., indicating the benefits of the process as an eco-efficient and promising route for the recycling of valuable metals.

Recovery of lithium and cobalt from lithium cobalt oxide and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide batteries using supercritical water.

This study investigates the eco-friendly extraction of metal oxides from LCO and NMC batteries using supercritical water. Experiments were conducted at 450 °C with a feed rate of 5 mL min-1 and varying battery/PVC ratios (0.0, 2.0, and 3.0). The products were analyzed by X-ray diffractometry (XRD), atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Results show the presence of cobalt chloride (CoCl2) and lithium (Li) in the liquid products, achieving 100% cobalt recovery under all conditions. The gaseous products obtained hydrogen with molar compositions up to 78.3% and 82.7% for LCO:PVC and NMC:PVC batteries, respectively, after 60 min of reaction. These findings highlight the potential of this methodology for lithium-ion battery recycling.

Local residents' perception on factors affecting the willingness to pay for improved urban canal water: a case study in Can Tho city of Vietnam.

Urbanization and economic development cause water pollution in the inner-city canals and rivers globally. Bung Xang canal in Can Tho city of Vietnam is facing problems with water pollution due to the lack of centralized wastewater treatment plants and low public awareness on environmental protection. Perception of local residents was collected using structured questionnaires including both qualitative and quantitative information. Regression analysis was employed to evaluate the factors affecting the decision of respondents on the willingness to pay (WTP) to improve water quality in the Bung Xang canal. Knowledge about the environmental protection fee for domestic wastewater (10% of the VAT-excluded from the selling price of 1 m3 of tap water purchased), age of the respondents and their education levels affected the WTP positively, while respondents' perception on water quality affected the WTP negatively. There was 58.33% of the respondents showed the WTP for improved water quality in the canal. They agreed to pay a small fee of VND 10,000 to 15,000 (equivalent to USD 0.42-0.63)/month (1 US$= 23,700 VND). The result indicates that environmental education is the only way forward for a successful sustainable urban city.

Tackling fat, oil, and grease (FOG) build-up in sewers: Insights into deposit formation and sustainable in-sewer management techniques.

The increasing global demand for fatty products, population growth, and the expansion of food service establishments (FSEs) present significant challenges for the wastewater industry. This is often due to the build-up of fat, oil and grease (FOG) in sewers, which reduces capacity and leads to sanitary sewer overflows. It is crucial to develop economic and sustainable in-sewer FOG management techniques to minimise maintenance costs and service disruptions caused by the removal of FOG deposits from sewers. This study aims to understand the process of FOG deposit formation in both concrete and non-concrete sewers. Compared to fresh cooking oil, disposal of used cooking oil in households and FSE sinks results in the formation of highly adhesive and viscous FOG deposits. This occurs due to hydrolysis during frying, which increases the concentration of fatty acids, particularly palmitic acid, in the used cooking oil. Furthermore, metal ions from food waste, wastewater, and dishwashing detergents contribute to the saponification and aggregation reactions which cause FOG deposition in both concrete and non-concrete sewers. However, the leaching of Ca2+ ions exacerbates FOG deposition in cement-concrete sewers. The article concludes by suggesting future research perspectives and proposes implementation strategies for microbially induced concrete corrosion (MICC) control to manage FOG deposition in sewers. One such strategy involves applying superhydrophobic coating materials with low surface free energy and high surface roughness to the interior surfaces of the sewer. This approach would help repel wastewater carrying FOG deposit components, potentially disrupting the interaction between FOG components, and reducing the adhesion of FOG deposits to sewer surfaces.

Effect of electrodialysis on colloidal geometry and dynamics: Why my membrane stack was clogged even after a fine pretreatment?

As a long-standing problem, electrodialysis (ED) clogging is believed a consequence of colloids. However, its blocking causation and clogging mechanism have not been verified. In this study, electrodialysis was used to treat a colloidal saline solution, aiming to answer the question from the "nature" of ED by investigating the influence of ED parameters such as laminar flow, salt concentration, current density and pH on colloid geometry and dynamics during the desalting process. The results revealed that: (i) laminar and membrane electrostatic repulsion and adsorption could not significantly increase the particle size (maximum 2.28 times), while the applied electric field elevated the particle size by 54.52 times (119.9 ± 13.66 to 6537.5 ± 64.35 nm); (ii) when the initial feed concentration elevated 10 times (0.1 to 1 mol/L NaCl), the particle size upsurged 149-fold (5.99 ± 0.57 to >150 µm), and flocs were generated. This enhancement was mainly attributed to the compressive electric double layer effect, and the Debye length was trimmed from 0.96 to 0.30 nm; (iii) The low current density (25 A/m2) had a profound aggregation effect on small BSA particles (roughly 10 nm); (iv) The change of pH causes the conformational transition of BSA. In the strong acidic (pH = 3.0) environment, the colloidal particle size expanded by 13 times. This study confirmed that the aggregation of colloids was the culprit of spacer clogging during electrodialysis at higher salt concentrations (>1 mol/L). Furthermore, experimental data were substituted into the simulation formula to summarise the geometry and dynamic variation of BSA in ED.

Challenges and advancements in membrane distillation crystallization for industrial applications.

Membrane distillation crystallization (MDC) is an emerging hybrid thermal membrane technology that synergizes membrane distillation (MD) and crystallization, which can achieve both freshwater and minerals recovery from high concentrated solutions. Due to the outstanding hydrophobic nature of the membranes, MDC has been widely used in numerous fields such as seawater desalination, valuable minerals recovery, industrial wastewater treatment and pharmaceutical applications, where the separation of dissolved solids is required. Despite the fact that MDC has shown great promise in producing both high-purity crystals and freshwater, most studies on MDC remain limited to laboratory scale, and industrializing MDC processes is currently impractical. This paper summarizes the current state of MDC research, focusing on the mechanisms of MDC, the controls for membrane distillation (MD), and the controls for crystallization. Additionally, this paper categorizes the obstacles hindering the industrialization of MDC into various aspects, including energy consumption, membrane wetting, flux reduction, crystal yield and purity, and crystallizer design. Furthermore, this study also indicates the direction for future development of the industrialization of MDC.

Valorization of e-waste via supercritical water technology: An approach for obsolete mobile phones.

The improper handling of electronic waste has not only severe environmental impacts but also results in the loss of high economic potential. To address this issue, the use of supercritical water (ScW) technology for the eco-friendly processing of waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs) obtained from obsolete mobile phones has been explored in this study. The WPCBs were characterized via MP-AES, WDXRF, TG/DTA, CHNS elemental analysis, SEM and XRD. A L9 Taguchi orthogonal array design was employed to evaluate the impact of four independent variables on the organic degradation rate (ODR) of the system. After optimization, an ODR of 98.4% was achieved at a temperature of 600 °C, a reaction time of 50 min, a flowrate of 7 mL min-1, and the absence of an oxidizing agent. The removal of the organic content from the WPCBs resulted in an increase in the metal concentration, with up to 92.6% of the metal content being efficiently recovered. During the ScW process, the decomposition by-products were continuously removed from the reactor system through the liquid or gaseous outputs. The liquid fraction, which was composed of phenol derivatives, was treated using the same experimental apparatus, achieving a total organic carbon reduction of 99.2% at 600 °C using H2O2 as the oxidizing agent. The gaseous fraction was found to contain hydrogen, methane, CO2, and CO as the major components. Finally, the addition of co-solvents, namely ethanol and glycerol, enhanced the production of combustible gases during the ScW processing of WPCBs.

Resource recovery from RO concentrate using nanofiltration: Impact of active layer thickness on performance.

Modelling the removal of monovalent and divalent ions from seawater via nanofiltration is crucial for pre-treatment in seawater reverse osmosis systems. Effective separation of divalent ions through nanofiltration and allowing the permeate containing only monovalent ions to pass through the reverse osmosis system produces pure NaCl salt from the concentrate. However, the Donnan steric pore model and dielectric exclusion assume a uniformly distributed cylinder pore morphology, which is not representative of the actual membrane structure. This study analyzed the impact of membrane thickness on neutral solute removal and investigated the effect of two different methods for calculating the Peclet number on rejection rates of monovalent and divalent salts. Results show that membrane thickness has a significant effect on rejection rates, particularly for uncharged solutes in the range of 0.5-0.7 solute radius to membrane pore size ratio. Operating pressures above 10 bar favour the use of effective active layer thickness over the membrane pore size to calculate the Peclet number. At low pressures, using the effective active layer can lead to overestimation of monovalent salt rejection and underestimation of divalent salt rejection. This study highlights the importance of appropriate Peclet number calculation methods based on applied pressure when modelling membrane separation performance.

Generalization and Expansion of the Hermia Model for a Better Understanding of Membrane Fouling.

One of the most broadly used models for membrane fouling is the Hermia model (HM), which separates this phenomenon into four blocking mechanisms, each with an associated parameter n. The original model is given by an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) dependent on n. This ODE is solved only for these four values of n, which limits the effectiveness of the model when adjusted to experimental data. This paper aims extend the original Hermia model to new values of n by slightly increasing the complexity of the HM while keeping it as simple as possible. The extended Hermia model (EHM) is given by a power law for any n ≠ 2 and by an exponential function at n = 2. Analytical expressions for the fouling layer thickness and the accumulated volume are also obtained. To better test the model, we perform model fitting of the EHM and compare its performance to the original four pore-blocking mechanisms in six micro- and ultrafiltration examples. In all examples, the EHM performs consistently better than the four original pore-blocking mechanisms. Changes in the blocking mechanisms concerning transmembrane pressure (TMP), crossflow rate (CFR), crossflow velocity (CFV), membrane composition, and pretreatments are also discussed.

The impact of PET microplastic fibres on PVDF ultrafiltration performance - A short-term assessment of MP fouling in simple and complex matrices.

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are key components for the capture of microplastics (MPs) before they are released into natural waterways. Removal efficiencies as high as 99% may be achieved but sub-micron MPs as well as nanoplastics have been overlooked because of analytical limitations. Furthermore, short MP fibres are of concern because of their low capture rate as well as the lack of understanding of their influence on purification system efficiency. This study has investigated the impact of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) short nanofibres on the performance of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) ultrafiltration membranes during cross-flow operation. Model MP fibres with an average length of 10 ± 7 µm and a diameter of 142 ± 40 nm were prepared via a combination of electrospinning and fine cutting using a cryomicrotome. The manufactured MPs were added to both pure and synthetic domestic wastewater at a concentration of 1 mg.L-1 to determine their impact on the performance of PVDF ultrafiltration membranes. The results show that PET fibres attach to the membrane in a disorganised manner with low pore coverage. The water flux was decreased by 8% for MPs in pure water and no noticeable effect in wastewater after 3 days of filtration. Additionally, the nutrient removal efficiency of the membrane was not altered by the presence of PET MPs. These findings show that MP fibres do not significantly influence the early stages of filtration for a standard concentration of MPs in wastewater treatment plant studies.

Effect of long-term operations on the performance of hollow fiber membrane contactor (HFMC) in recovering dissolved methane from anaerobic effluent.

Various studies provide information about the high potential of using hollow fiber membrane contactors (HFMCs) for the recovery of dissolved methane from anaerobically treated wastewater effluent and the effects of different operating conditions on their performance. However, majority of those studies evaluated HFMCs at bench scale under favorable conditions, i.e. clean water as feed under short-term operations. This study evaluated the performance of porous HFMC and dense HFMC (in terms of dissolved methane removal efficiency and methane desorption flux) subjected to anaerobic feed during long-term operation of one month. The study will provide better understanding of the performance of HFMCs with conditions expected at large-scale wastewater treatment systems. From the results, the decrease in the performance of HFMCs and the increase in the mass transfer resistance per week under varying feed flux were determined. These relationships were utilized in a numerical model to incorporate the effect of long-term operation to evaluate the performance of upscaled HFMCs. The fit of the model with the experimental data with one month of operation was evaluated and the relative errors were 11.9 % and 15.3 % for porous HFMC and dense HFMC, respectively. Moreover, results showed that dense HFMC will provide better performance than porous HFMC if it were to be operated longer than two weeks before cleaning. The net energy for porous HFMC and dense HFMC were optimized to be 0.07 and 0.02 kWh·d-1, respectively. Although these results are specific to the operations and conditions used for the HFMCs in this study, the methodology established for incorporating the effect of long-term operation will be highly relevant in evaluating the performance of HFMCs in large-scale wastewater treatment applications. This will contribute to the improved recovery of dissolved methane to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere and to provide additional source of clean and sustainable energy.

Challenges in Environmental Science/Engineering and fate and innovative treatment/remediation of emerging pollutants.

Solid waste Management: There are two articles in this section. Shi et al. (2021) investigated the unbalanced status and multidimensional influences of municipal solid waste management in Africa. It was identified that economic growth, urbanization and geographical location are the most critical factors influencing the unbalanced statue of MSW management in Africa.

Evaluation of membrane cake fouling mechanism to estimate design parameters of a submerged AnMBR treating high strength industrial wastewater.

A mathematical model, which was previously developed for submerged aerobic membrane bioreactors, was successfully applied to elucidate the membrane cake-layer fouling mechanisms due to bound extracellular polymeric substances (eEPS) in a submerged anaerobic membrane bioreactor (SAnMBR). This biofouling dynamic model explains the mechanisms such as attachment, consolidation and detachment of eEPS produced in the bioreactor on the membrane surface. The 4th order Runge-Kutta method was used to solve the model equations, and the parameters were estimated from simulated and experimental results. The key design parameters representing the behaviour of cake fouling dynamics were systematically investigated. Organic loading rate (OLR) was considered a controlling factor governing the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), eEPS production, filtration resistance (Rt), and transmembrane pressure (TMP) variations in a SAnMBR. eEPS showed a proportional relation with OLR at subsequent MLSS variations. The consolidation of EPS increased the specific eEPS resistance (αs), influencing the cake resistance (Rc). The propensities of eEPS showed a positive correlation with Rt and TMP. The outcomes of the study also estimated a set of valuable design parameters which would be vital for applying in AnMBRs treating industrial wastewater.

Assessment of black liquor hydrothermal treatment under sub- and supercritical conditions: Products distribution and economic perspectives.

This study reports an alternative method for black liquor treatment with potential for energy and process savings in the paper and pulp industry. Gasification of black liquor was carried out under sub- and supercritical conditions, varying the black liquor feed composition (0.10, 2.55 and 5.00 wb%) and temperature (350, 425 and 500 °C). Liquid products were identified by high resolution mass spectrometry (FT-Orbitrap MS) and compounds belonging to classes O3 and O4 were found to be the most representative in the products of reactions performed at 500 °C. The mass spectra results also revealed the overall selectivity of reactions, where decarboxylation and demethoxylation reactions were favored under subcritical and supercritical conditions, respectively. Among the gaseous products, hydrogen and methane were produced with maximum of 69.04 and 28.75 mol%, respectively, at 2.55 wb% and 425 °C. The proposed thermodynamic modelling of the reaction system satisfactorily predicted the gas phase behavior of the system. In the economic analysis, the simulated conditions indicated that the main energy requirements for a scaled-up black liquor gasification process are related to the necessary heat exchangers and pressurizing of the black liquor solution. Furthermore, the cost of the black liquor gasification is around 0.06 US$ per kg of feed stream. Liquid and gaseous products from gasification could be obtained at a cost of 56.64 US$ and 3.35 US$ per tonne of stream, respectively. Therefore, black liquor gasification is an interesting route for obtaining combustible gases and value-added bioproducts.

Applications of Membranes for Sustainability.

Applications of membranes in water and wastewater treatment, desalination, as well as other purification processes, have become more widespread over the past few decades [...].

A focused review on membrane contactors for the recovery of dissolved methane from anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) effluents.

The need for a more sustainable wastewater treatment is more relevant now due to climate change. Production and reuse of methane from anaerobic treatment is one pathway. However, this is defeated by the presence of dissolved methane in the effluent and would be released to the environment, adding to the greenhouse gas emissions. This review paper provided summary and analysis of studies involved in the production of dissolved methane from AnMBR, focusing with actual methane measurement (gas and dissolved) from AnMBR with different types of wastewater. Then more focused discussion and analysis on the use of membrane-based technology or membrane contactors in the recovery of dissolved methane from AnMBR effluent are included, with its development and energy analysis. The dissolved methane removal and recovery rate of membrane contactors can be as high as 96% and 0.05 mol methane/m2/h, respectively, with very low additional energy requirement of 0.01 kWh/m3 for the recovery. Future perspectives presented focus on the long-term evaluation and modelling of membrane contactors and on the membrane modifications to improve the selectivity of membranes to methane and to limit their fouling and wetting, thus making the technology more economical for resource recovery.