Efficient internalization and intracellular translocation of inhaled gold nanoparticles in rat alveolar macrophages.

AIM: To investigate the relationship of alveolar macrophages and inhaled nanoparticles (NPs) in the lung. MATERIALS & METHODS: Rats were exposed by inhalation to 16-nm gold NPs for 6 h, and ultramicroscopic observation on the frequency and localization of gold NPs within lavaged macrophages was performed for 7 days. RESULTS & DISCUSSION: The majority of macrophages examined on day 0 (94%) contained internalized gold NPs, and the percentage decreased to 59% on day 7. Gold NPs were exclusively found within cytoplasmic vesicles. On day 0, most gold NPs appeared to be individual or slightly agglomerated, while they were frequently agglomerated on day 7. CONCLUSION: Alveolar macrophages efficiently internalized NPs by endocytosis, and rearrangements of vesicles and of NPs in the vesicles of macrophages occurred.

Liver mitochondrial membrane crosslinking and destruction in a rat model of Wilson disease.

Wilson disease (WD) is a rare hereditary condition that is caused by a genetic defect in the copper-transporting ATPase ATP7B that results in hepatic copper accumulation and lethal liver failure. The present study focuses on the structural mitochondrial alterations that precede clinical symptoms in the livers of rats lacking Atp7b, an animal model for WD. Liver mitochondria from these Atp7b­/­ rats contained enlarged cristae and widened intermembrane spaces, which coincided with a massive mitochondrial accumulation of copper. These changes, however, preceded detectable deficits in oxidative phosphorylation and biochemical signs of oxidative damage, suggesting that the ultrastructural modifications were not the result of oxidative stress imposed by copper- dependent Fenton chemistry. In a cell-free system containing a reducing dithiol agent, isolated mitochondria exposed to copper underwent modifications that were closely related to those observed in vivo. In this cell-free system, copper induced thiol modifications of three abundant mitochondrial membrane proteins, and this correlated with reversible intramitochondrial membrane crosslinking, which was also observed in liver mitochondria from Atp7b­/­ rats. In vivo, copper-chelating agents reversed mitochondrial accumulation of copper, as well as signs of intra-mitochondrial membrane crosslinking, thereby preserving the functional and structural integrity of mitochondria. Together, these findings suggest that the mitochondrion constitutes a pivotal target of copper in WD.

Missing-in-metastasis MIM/MTSS1 promotes actin assembly at intercellular junctions and is required for integrity of kidney epithelia.

MIM/MTSS1 is a tissue-specific regulator of plasma membrane dynamics, whose altered expression levels have been linked to cancer metastasis. MIM deforms phosphoinositide-rich membranes through its I-BAR domain and interacts with actin monomers through its WH2 domain. Recent work proposed that MIM also potentiates Sonic hedgehog (Shh)-induced gene expression. Here, we generated MIM mutant mice and found that full-length MIM protein is dispensable for embryonic development. However, MIM-deficient mice displayed a severe urinary concentration defect caused by compromised integrity of kidney epithelia intercellular junctions, which led to bone abnormalities and end-stage renal failure. In cultured kidney epithelial (MDCK) cells, MIM displayed dynamic localization to adherens junctions, where it promoted Arp2/3-mediated actin filament assembly. This activity was dependent on the ability of MIM to interact with both membranes and actin monomers. Furthermore, results from the mouse model and cell culture experiments suggest that full-length MIM is not crucial for Shh signaling, at least during embryogenesis. Collectively, these data demonstrate that MIM modulates interplay between the actin cytoskeleton and plasma membrane to promote the maintenance of intercellular contacts in kidney epithelia.

Platelets contribute to postnatal occlusion of the ductus arteriosus.

The ductus arteriosus (DA) is a fetal shunt vessel between the pulmonary artery and the aorta that closes promptly after birth. Failure of postnatal DA closure is a major cause of morbidity and mortality particularly in preterm neonates. The events leading to DA closure are incompletely understood. Here we show that platelets have an essential role in DA closure. Using intravital microscopy of neonatal mice, we observed that platelets are recruited to the luminal aspect of the DA during closure. DA closure is impaired in neonates with malfunctioning platelet adhesion or aggregation or with defective platelet biogenesis. Defective DA closure resulted in a left-to-right shunt with increased pulmonary perfusion, pulmonary vascular remodeling and right ventricular hypertrophy. Our findings indicate that platelets are crucial for DA closure by promoting thrombotic sealing of the constricted DA and by supporting luminal remodeling. A retrospective clinical study revealed that thrombocytopenia is an independent predictor for failure of DA closure in preterm human newborns, indicating that platelets are likely to contribute to DA closure in humans.

Induction of tumor cell apoptosis or necrosis by conditional expression of cell death proteins: analysis of cell death pathways and in vitro immune stimulatory potential.

For the efficient stimulation of T cells by tumor Ag, tumor-derived material has to be presented by dendritic cells (DC). This very likely involves the uptake of dead tumor cells by DC. Cell death in tumors often occurs through apoptosis, but necrotic cell death may also be prevalent. This distinction is relevant because numerous studies have proposed that apoptotic cells have immunosuppressive effects while necrosis may be stimulatory. However, a system has been lacking that would allow the induction of apoptosis or necrosis without side effects by the death stimuli used experimentally. In this study, we present such a system and test its effects on immune cells in vitro. B16 mouse melanoma cells were generated and underwent cell death through the doxycycline-inducible induction of death proteins. In one cell line, the induction of Bim(S) induced rapid apoptosis, in the other line the induction of the FADD death domain induced nonapoptotic/necrotic cell death. Bim(S)-induced apoptosis was associated with the typical morphological and biochemical changes. FADD death domain induced necrosis occurred through a distinct pathway involving RIP1 and the loss of membrane integrity in the absence of apoptotic changes. Apoptotic and necrotic cells were taken up with comparable efficiency by DC. OVA expressed in cells dying by either apoptosis or necrosis was cross-presented to OT-1 T cells and induced their proliferation. These results argue that it is not the form of cell death but its circumstances that decide the question whether cell death leads to a productive T cell response.

Electrophoretic analysis of the mitochondrial outer membrane rupture induced by permeability transition.

A pathological increase of the permeability of the mitochondrial membranes may culminate in the irreversible rupture of the mitochondrial outer membrane. Such a permeability transition is lethal because it results in the release of death-inducing molecules from mitochondria and/or metabolic failure. Current methods to assess this outer membrane damage are mostly indirect or scarcely representative of the overall mitochondrial population. Here we present an analytical and preparative approach using free flow electrophoresis to directly distinguish rat liver mitochondria that have undergone the permeability transition from unaffected organelles or from organelles that are damaged to a minor degree. Mitochondrial populations, which considerably differ in outer membrane integrity or cytochrome c content, were separated by this means. We further show that the relative abundance of each population depends on the dose of the permeability transition inducer and the duration of the treatment time. Finally, we have employed this approach to investigate the impairment of mitochondria that were isolated from livers subjected to ischemia/reperfusion damage.

Isolation of highly pure rat liver mitochondria with the aid of zone-electrophoresis in a free flow device (ZE-FFE).

This protocol describes the purification of mitochondria from rat liver with the aid of zone electrophoresis in a free flow device (ZE-FFE). Starting from liver homogenate, cell debris and nuclei are removed by low speed centrifugation. A crude mitochondrial fraction is obtained by medium speed centrifugation and is further purified by washing followed by a Nycodenz gradient centrifugation. Lysosomes and microsomes are located at the upper parts of the gradient, whereas mitochondria are found in the medium part of the gradient. A subsequent purification step with ZE-FFE efficiently removes remaining lysosomes and microsomes and, importantly, damaged mitochondrial structures. The resulting purified mitochondria can be concentrated by centrifugation and used for further experiments. Finally, possible modifications of this protocol with respect to the isolation of pure lysosomes are discussed.

Polylactide-coglycolide microspheres co-encapsulating recombinant tandem prion protein with CpG-oligonucleotide break self-tolerance to prion protein in wild-type mice and induce CD4 and CD8 T cell responses.

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative diseases that are characterized by the conformational conversion of the normal, mainly alpha-helical cellular prion protein (PrP) into the abnormal beta-sheet-rich infectious isoform (PrP(Sc)). The immune system neither shows reaction against cellular PrP nor PrP(Sc), most likely due to profound self-tolerance. In previous studies, we were able to partly overcome self-tolerance using recombinantly expressed dimeric PrP (tandem PrP (tPrP)), in association with different adjuvants. Proof of principle for antiprion efficacy was obtained in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we demonstrate the induction of a specific Th1 T cell response in wild-type mice immunized with tPrP and CpG-oligonucleotide (ODN). Biochemical influences such as refolding conditions, ionic strength, pH, and interaction with CpG-ODN affected antigenic structure and thus improved immunogenicity. Furthermore, s.c. immunization with tPrP and CpG-ODN co-encapsulated in biodegradable polylactide-coglycolide microspheres (PLGA-MS) enhanced CD4 T cell responses and, more prominent, the induction of CD8 T cells. In this vaccination protocol, PLGA-MS function as endosomal delivery device of Ag plus CpG-ODN to macrophages and dendritic cells. In contrast, PLGA-MS-based DNA vaccination approaches with a tPrP construct generated poor humoral and T cell responses. Our data show that prophylactic and therapeutic immunization approaches against prion infections might be feasible using tPrP Ag and CpG-ODN adjuvant without detectable side effects.

Toll-like receptor 9-independent aggravation of glomerulonephritis in a novel model of SLE.

The generation of anti-DNA auto-antibodies is characteristic for the human autoimmune condition systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and its animal models. However, the contribution of the toll-like receptor (TLR) system of innate immunity receptors and, in particular, TLR9 to this B cell-mediated autoimmune process remains controversial. Here we report that in a novel murine model of SLE, based on hyper-reactive B cell activation mediated by mutant phospholipase Cg2, the genetic deficiency of TLR9 does not protect from spontaneous anti-DNA auto-antibody formation and glomerulonephritis. On the contrary, disease induction is aggravated and additional nucleolar antibody specificity develops in autoimmune TLR9-deficient mice. In vitro studies demonstrate that, in autoimmune-prone mice, dual signaling via the B cell receptor and non-CpG DNA results in synergistic B cell activation in a TLR9-independent manner. These results suggest that engagement of a TLR9-independent DNA activation pathway may promote autoimmunity, while TLR9 signaling can ameliorate SLE-like immune pathology in vivo.

Polymorphonuclear neutrophils improve replication of Chlamydia pneumoniae in vivo upon MyD88-dependent attraction.

Chlamydia pneumoniae, an obligate intracellular bacterium, causes pneumonia in humans and mice. In this study, we show that GR1+/CD45+ polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) surprisingly increase the bacterial load of C. pneumoniae in vivo. Upon intranasal infection of wild-type mice, the lung weight is increased; the cytokines TNF, IL-12p40, and IFN-gamma, as well as the chemokines keratinocyte-derived chemokine, MCP-1, and MIP-2 are secreted; and GR1+/CD45+ PMN are recruited into lungs 3 days postinfection. In contrast, in infected MyD88-deficient mice, which lack a key adaptor molecule in the signaling cascade of TLRs and IL-1R family members, the increase of the lung weight is attenuated, and from the analyzed cyto- and chemokines, only IL-12p40 is detectable. Upon infection, almost no influx of inflammatory cells into lungs of MyD88-deficient mice can be observed. Six days postinfection, however, MyD88-deficient mice were able to produce TNF, IFN-gamma, keratinocyte-derived chemokine, and MCP-1 in amounts similar to wild-type mice, but failed to secrete IL-12p40 and MIP-2. At this time point, the infection increased the lung weight to a level similar to wild-type mice. Curiously, the chlamydial burden in MyD88-deficient mice 3 days postinfection is lower than in wild-type mice, a finding that can be reproduced in wild-type mice by depletion of GR1+ cells. In analyzing how PMN influence the chlamydial burden in vivo, we find that PMN are infected and enhance the replication of C. pneumoniae in epithelial cells. Thus, the lower chlamydial burden in MyD88-deficient mice can be explained by the failure to recruit PMN.

Role of chlamydial heat shock protein 60 in the stimulation of innate immune cells by Chlamydia pneumoniae.

Chlamydia pneumoniae stimulates potently maturation of and cytokine secretion by bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDDC). BMDDC responses depend mainly on Toll-like receptor (TLR)2 and to a minor extent on TLR4. We demonstrate here using C. pneumoniae in an infectious model with the replication-permissive epithelial cell line HEp2 that HSP60 is produced in substantial amounts in chlamydial inclusions during infection. Electron microscopy of chlamydial inclusions revealed that HSP60 was mainly associated with reticulate bodies, but was also located in between the different chlamydial developmental forms. Supernatants of permissive HEp2 cells infected with C. pneumoniae contained soluble chlamydial HSP60 as demonstrated by Western blotting and were able to stimulate BMDDC of wild-type mice. The stimulatory capacity of culture supernatants correlated with the presence of chlamydial HSP60. In contrast, BMDDC from TLR4-mutant mice crossed to TLR2-deficient mice were not stimulated by the culture supernatant, indicating that chlamydial HSP60 but not cytokines, possibly secreted by infected HEp2 cells, are responsible for the observed stimulation of BMDDC. Purified recombinant HSP60 from C. pneumoniae stimulated BMDDC in a TLR2- and TLR4-dependent fashion similar to the whole microorganism. In summary, these data suggest chlamydial HSP60 as an important mediator of inflammatory responses during infection with C. pneumoniae.