Evaluation of bovine milk extracellular vesicles for the delivery of locked nucleic acid antisense oligonucleotides.

The natural capacity of extracellular vesicles (EVs) to transport their payload to recipient cells has raised big interest to repurpose EVs as delivery vehicles for xenobiotics. In the present study, bovine milk-derived EVs (BMEVs) were investigated for their potential to shuttle locked nucleic acid-modified antisense oligonucleotides (LNA ASOs) into the systemic circulation after oral administration. To this end, a broad array of analytical methods including proteomics and lipidomics were used to thoroughly characterize BMEVs. We found that additional purification by density gradients efficiently reduced levels of non-EV associated proteins. The potential of BMEVs to functionally transfer LNA ASOs was tested using advanced in vitro systems (i.e. hPSC-derived neurons and primary human cells). A slight increase in cellular LNA ASO internalization and target gene reduction was observed when LNA ASOs were delivered using BMEVs. When dosed orally in mice, only a small fraction (about 1% of total administered dose) of LNA ASOs was recovered in the peripheral tissues liver and kidney, however, no significant reduction in target gene expression (i.e. functional knockdown) was observed.

Low nanomolar GABA effects at extrasynaptic α4ß1/ß3δ GABA(A) receptor subtypes indicate a different binding mode for GABA at these receptors.

Ionotropic GABA(A) receptors are a highly heterogenous population of receptors assembled from a combination of multiple subunits. The aims of this study were to characterize the potency of GABA at human recombinant δ-containing extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes using the two-electrode voltage clamp technique, and to investigate, using site-directed mutagenesis, the molecular determinants for GABA potency at α4ß3δ GABA(A) receptors. α4/δ-Containing GABA(A) receptors displayed high sensitivity to GABA, with mid-nanomolar concentrations activating α4ß1δ (EC50=24 nM) and α4ß3δ (EC50=12 nM) receptors. In the majority of oocytes expressing α4ß3δ subtypes, GABA produced a biphasic concentration-response curve, and activated the receptor with low and high concentrations (EC50(1)=16 nM; EC50(2)=1.2 µM). At α4ß2δ, GABA had low micromolar activity (EC50=1 µM). An analysis of 10 N-terminal singly mutated α4ß3δ receptors shows that GABA interacts with amino acids different to those reported for α1ß2γ2 GABA(A) receptors. Residues Y205 and R207 of the ß3-subunit significantly affected GABA potency, while the residue F71 of the α4- and the residue Y97 of the ß3-subunit did not significantly affect GABA potency. Mutating the residue R218 of the δ-subunit, equivalent to the GABA binding residue R207 of the ß2-subunit, reduced the potency of GABA by 670-fold, suggesting a novel GABA binding site at the δ-subunit interface. Taken together, GABA may have different binding modes for extrasynaptic δ-containing GABA(A) receptors compared to their synaptic counterparts.

Intersubunit bridge formation governs agonist efficacy at nicotinic acetylcholine α4ß2 receptors: unique role of halogen bonding revealed.

The α4ß2 subtype of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor has been pursued as a drug target for treatment of psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders and smoking cessation aids for decades. Still, a thorough understanding of structure-function relationships of α4ß2 agonists is lacking. Using binding experiments, electrophysiology and x-ray crystallography we have investigated a consecutive series of five prototypical pyridine-containing agonists derived from 1-(pyridin-3-yl)-1,4-diazepane. A correlation between binding affinities at α4ß2 and the acetylcholine-binding protein from Lymnaea stagnalis (Ls-AChBP) confirms Ls-AChBP as structural surrogate for α4ß2 receptors. Crystal structures of five agonists with efficacies at α4ß2 from 21-76% were determined in complex with Ls-AChBP. No variation in closure of loop C is observed despite large efficacy variations. Instead, the efficacy of a compound appears tightly coupled to its ability to form a strong intersubunit bridge linking the primary and complementary binding interfaces. For the tested agonists, a specific halogen bond was observed to play a large role in establishing such strong intersubunit anchoring.