Insampaedok-San Extract Exerts an Immune-Enhancing Effect through NF-κB p65 Pathway Activation.

Insampaedok-san (IS) has traditionally been prescribed as a medication for cold-related symptoms in Northeast Asia, including Korea and China. In this study, we focused on elucidating the molecular mechanism underlying the immunomodulatory activity of IS water extract (ISE) in macrophages. ISE significantly enhanced the levels of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) by increasing the expression of inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in a dose-dependent manner. ISE, which consists of many herbs, contains a large number of active compounds whose pharmacological targets and mechanisms are complicated. Therefore, network pharmacology analysis was used to predict the potential key components, targets, and mechanisms of ISE as immunomodulators. Subsequently, the network pharmacology results were validated experimentally. Seven key components were identified through HPLC-QTOF-MS. As predicted by the network pharmacology analysis, ISE increased the mRNA expression of Tnf and Il6. Furthermore, ISE increased the phosphorylation, nuclear translocation, and transcriptional activity of the p65 subunit of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway. In contrast, rapamycin, an NF-κB inhibitor, suppressed the ISE-induced mRNA expression of Tnf and Il6. In conclusion, ISE is an immune activator that can elevate the production of NO, PGE2, and proinflammatory cytokines mediated by NF-κB signaling.

Cannabidiol Enhances Cabozantinib-Induced Apoptotic Cell Death via Phosphorylation of p53 Regulated by ER Stress in Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

Cannabidiol (CBD), a primary constituent in hemp and cannabis, exerts broad pharmacological effects against various diseases, including cancer. Additionally, cabozantinib, a potent multi-kinase inhibitor, has been approved for treating patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Recently, there has been an increase in research on combination therapy using cabozantinib to improve efficacy and safety when treating patients. Here, we investigated the effect of a combination treatment of cabozantinib and CBD on HCC cells. CBD treatment enhanced the sensitivity of HCC cells to cabozantinib-mediated anti-cancer activity by increasing cytotoxicity and apoptosis. Phospho-kinase array analysis demonstrated that the apoptotic effect of the combination treatment was mainly related to p53 phosphorylation regulated by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress when compared to other kinases. The inhibition of p53 expression and ER stress suppressed the apoptotic effect of the combination treatment, revealing no changes in the expression of Bax, Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-8, or cleaved caspase-9. Notably, the effect of the combination treatment was not associated with cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) and the CNR2 signaling pathways. Our findings suggest that the combination therapy of cabozantinib and CBD provides therapeutic efficacy against HCC.

Gene Signatures and Associated Transcription Factors of Allergic Rhinitis: KLF4 Expression Is Associated with Immune Response.

This study is aimed at investigating the potential molecular features of allergic rhinitis (AR) and identifying gene signatures and related transcription factors using transcriptome analysis and in silico datasets. Transcriptome profiles were obtained using three independent cohorts (GSE101720, GSE19190, and GSE46171) comprising healthy controls (HC) and patients with AR. The pooled dataset (n = 82) was used to identify the critical signatures of AR compared with HC. Subsequently, key transcription factors were identified by a combined analysis using transcriptome and in silico datasets. Gene ontology: bioprocess (GO: BP) analysis using differentially expressed genes (DEGs) revealed that immune response-related genes were significantly enriched in AR compared with HC. Among them, IL1RL1, CD274, and CD44 were significantly higher in AR patients. We also identified key transcription factors between HC and AR using the in silico dataset and found that AR samples frequently express KLF transcription factor 4 (KLF4), which regulates immune response-related genes including IL1RL1, CD274, and CD44 in human nasal epithelial cells. Our integrative analysis of transcriptomic regulation provides new insights into AR, which may help in developing precision management for patients with AR.

Molecular and radiopathologic spectrum between HCC and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Primary liver cancers (LCs), including HCC and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA), are derived from a common developmental lineage, conferring a molecular spectrum between them. To elucidate the molecular spectrum, we performed an integrative analysis of transcriptome profiles associated with patients' radiopathologic features. APPROACH AND RESULTS: We identified four LC subtypes (LC1-LC4) from RNA-sequencing profiles, revealing intermediate subtypes between HCC and iCCA. LC1 is a typical HCC characterized by active bile acid metabolism, telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter mutations, and high uptake of gadoxetic acid in MRI. LC2 is an iCCA-like HCC characterized by expression of the progenitor cell-like trait, tumor protein p53 mutations, and rim arterial-phase hyperenhancement in MRI. LC3 is an HCC-like iCCA, mainly small duct (SD) type, associated with HCC-related etiologic factors. LC4 is further subclassified into LC4-SD and LC4-large duct iCCAs according to the pathological features, which exhibited distinct genetic variations (e.g., KRAS , isocitrate dehydrogenase 1/2 mutation, and FGF receptor 2 fusion), stromal type, and prognostic outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Our integrated view of the molecular spectrum of LCs can identify subtypes associated with transcriptomic, genomic, and radiopathologic features, providing mechanistic insights into heterogeneous LC progression.

Albumin, filamin-A and cytokeratin 19 help distinguish intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma from extrahepatic adenocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND: The differential diagnosis of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinomas (iCCAs) from metastatic adenocarcinomas from organs adjacent to the liver (gallbladder, pancreas, and stomach) is difficult due to histopathological similarity and a lack of specific markers. This study aimed to develop a method to differentiate iCCA and adenocarcinomas originated from extrahepatic organs adjacent to the liver. METHODS: We retrospectively enrolled surgically resected iCCA (n = 181) and adenocarcinomas from extrahepatic organs (n = 30, n = 28, and n = 38 from gallbladder, pancreas, and stomach, respectively) between 2007 and 2013. The albumin mRNA in situ hybridization (ISH) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) of filamin-A and cytokeratin 19 (CK19) were performed using tissue microarray. Using logistic regression analysis of three markers, iCCA-score was developed, and its diagnostic performance was evaluated. RESULTS: The iCCAs were more frequently positive for albumin ISH (23.2% vs. 0%), filamin-A IHC (47.5% vs. 12.5%) and CK19 (68.5% vs. 40.6%) than extrahepatic adenocarcinomas (p < 0.001 for all). The iCCA-score consisting of these three markers was developed, and it showed higher diagnostic performance (area under the curve [AUC], 0.798 vs. 0.616, p < 0.001). Taking an iCCA-score of 2 or higher as the threshold for iCCA, the sensitivity was substantially higher than albumin ISH alone (45.9% and 23.2%, respectively; p < 0.001), but maintained high specificity (94.8% and 100%, respectively). CONCLUSION: Albumin ISH and IHC staining for filamin-A and CK19 showed distinct expression patterns between iCCA and extrahepatic adenocarcinomas from gallbladder, pancreas, and stomach. We developed iCCA-score that consisted of those three markers, and it showed better diagnostic performance than albumin ISH alone.

The dual role of transforming growth factor-beta signatures in human B viral multistep hepatocarcinogenesis: early and late responsive genes.

Background/Aim: Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß) has a dichotomous role, functioning as a tumor suppressor and tumor promoter. TGF-ß signatures, explored in mouse hepatocytes, have been reported to predict the clinical outcomes of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients; HCCs exhibiting early TGF-ß signatures showed a better prognosis than those with late TGF-ß signatures. The expression status of early and late TGF-ß signatures remains unclear in defined lesions of human B-viral multistep hepatocarcinogenesis. Methods: The expression of TGF-ß signatures, early and late responsive signatures of TGF-ß were investigated and analyzed for their correlation in cirrhosis, low-grade dysplastic nodules (DNs), high-grade DNs, early HCCs and progressed HCCs (pHCCs) by real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Results: The expression levels of TGF-ß signaling genes (TGFB1, TGFBR1, TGFBR2 and SMAD4) gradually increased with the progression of hepatocarcinogenesis, peaking in pHCCs. The expression of early responsive genes of TGF-ß (GADD45B, FBP1, CYP1A2 and CYP3A4) gradually decreased, and that of the late TGF-ß signatures (TWIST and SNAI1) significantly increased according to the progression of multistep hepatocarcinogenesis. Furthermore, mRNA levels of TWIST and SNAI1 were well correlated with those of stemness markers, with upregulation of TGF-ß signaling, whereas FBP1 expression was inversely correlated with that of stemness markers. Conclusions: The enrichment of the late responsive signatures of TGF-ß with induction of stemness is considered to be involved in the progression of the late stage of multistep hepatocarcinogenesis, whereas the early responsive signatures of TGF-ß are suggested to have tumor-suppressive roles in precancerous lesions of the early stage of multistep hepatocarcinogenesis.

YAP inactivation in estrogen receptor alpha-positive hepatocellular carcinoma with less aggressive behavior.

The expression of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα, encoded by ESR1) has been shown to be associated with the prognostic outcomes of patients in various cancers; however, its prognostic and mechanistic significance in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain unclear. Here, we evaluated the expression of ERα and its association with clinicopathological features in 339 HCC patients. ERα was expressed in 9.4% (32/339) of HCCs and was related to better overall survival (OS; hazard ratio [HR] = 0.11, p = 0.009, 95% C.I. = 0.016-0.82) and disease-free survival (DFS, HR = 0.4, p = 0.013, 95% C.I. = 0.18-0.85). ERα expression was also associated with features related to more favorable prognosis, such as older age, lower serum alpha-fetoprotein level, and less microvascular invasion (p < 0.05). In addition, to obtain mechanistic insights into the role of ERα in HCC progression, we performed integrative transcriptome data analyses, which revealed that yes-associated protein (YAP) pathway was significantly suppressed in ESR1-expressing HCCs. By performing cell culture experiments, we validated that ERα expression enhanced YAP phosphorylation, attenuating its nuclear translocation, which in turn suppressed the downstream signaling pathways and cancer cell growth. In conclusion, we suggest that ERα expression is an indicator of more favorable prognosis in HCC and that this effect is mediated by inactivation of YAP signaling. Our results provide new clinical and pathobiological insights into ERα and YAP signaling in HCC.

Diospyros kaki leaves inhibit HGF/Met signaling-mediated EMT and stemness features in hepatocellular carcinoma.

Persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.f.) trees are widely cultivated for their edible fruits in Asia. D. kaki leaves are abundant in phytochemicals that have numerous medicinal properties. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and its receptor Met lead to poor prognosis via the promotion of metastasis and chemoresistance in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Therefore, inhibitors targeting the HGF/Met pathway are regarded as promising drugs against HCC. Here, we investigated the effects of D. kaki leaves on HGF-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and stemness traits in HCC. The ethanol extract of D. kaki leaves (EEDK) markedly suppressed HGF-mediated cell migration and invasion through upregulation of CDH1 and downregulation of SNAI1, VIM, MMP1, MMP2, and MMP9. Moreover, EEDK increased the cytotoxicity of sorafenib, which was reduced by HGF, and decreased the expression of the stemness markers KRT19 and CD44. Additionally, we found a clear correlation between stemness and EMT markers in HCC patients. Importantly, EEDK reduced Met activity and attenuated HGF-mediated activation of JNK/c-Jun. Our findings provide new evidence that EEDK can ameliorate HCC with poor prognosis and aggressive phenotype by blocking HGF/Met signaling.

Clinicopathological characteristics of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma according to gross morphologic type: cholangiolocellular differentiation traits and inflammation- and proliferation-phenotypes.

BACKGROUND: Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA) is subclassified into mass-forming (MF), periductal-infiltrative (PI), and mixed types grossly; however, their clinicopathological significance remains controversial. METHODS: Clinicopathological characteristics of iCCA gross types were analysed according to histopathological type (small-duct, large-duct, indeterminate) or cholangiolocellular differentiation trait (CDT) in 108 iCCAs. The expression levels of inflammation-marker (CRP, FGB) and proliferation-marker (phospho-ERK1/2, Ki-67) were evaluated by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: There were 87 MF, 8 PI, and 13 mixed-gross type. Small-duct-type (39, 44.8%) and CDT (19, 21.8%) were found only in MF-gross type. The inflammation-marker expression was higher in MF-type than in PI- and mixed-gross types (P = 0.023). It was high in small-duct-type, middle in indeterminate-type, and low in large-duct-type (P = 0.015), and iCCAs with CDT showed higher inflammation-marker expression compared to those without (P < 0.001). Proliferation-marker expression did not differ according to gross type; however it was lower in iCCA with CDT compared to those without (P = 0.004). Subgrouping of the gross type according to histopathological type or CDT revealed that MF-type with small-duct-type or CDT had better overall survival compared to the others (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: MF-type iCCA is more heterogeneous than other gross types. High inflammation-marker/low proliferation-marker expression in MF-type with CDT or small-duct-type may be related to a good outcome.

Dynamics of Genomic, Epigenomic, and Transcriptomic Aberrations during Stepwise Hepatocarcinogenesis.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) undergoes a stepwise progression from liver cirrhosis to low-grade dysplastic nodule (LGDN), high-grade dysplastic nodule (HGDN), early HCC (eHCC), and progressed HCC (pHCC). Here, we profiled multilayered genomic, epigenomic, and transcriptomic aberrations in the stepwise hepatocarcinogenesis. Initial DNA methylation was observed in eHCC (e.g., DKK3, SALL3, and SOX1) while more extensive methylation was observed in pHCC. In addition, eHCCs showed an initial loss of DNA copy numbers of tumor suppressor genes in the 4q and 13q regions, thereby conferring survival benefits to cancer cells. Transcriptome analysis revealed that HGDNs expressed endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-related genes, while eHCC started to express oncogenes. Furthermore, integrative analysis indicated that expression of the serine peptidase inhibitor, Kazal type 1 (SPINK1), played a pivotal role in eHCC development. Significant demethylation of SPINK1 was observed in eHCC compared to HGDN. The study also demonstrated that ER stress may induce SPINK1 demethylation and expression in liver cancer cells. In conclusion, these results reveal the dynamics of multiomic aberrations during malignant conversion of liver cancer, thus providing novel pathobiological insights into hepatocarcinogenesis. SIGNIFICANCE: Multiomics profiling and integrative analyses of stepwise hepatocarcinogenesis reveal novel mechanistic and clinical insights into hepatocarcinogenesis.

SEQprocess: a modularized and customizable pipeline framework for NGS processing in R package.

BACKGROUNDS: Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) is now widely used in biomedical research for various applications. Processing of NGS data requires multiple programs and customization of the processing pipelines according to the data platforms. However, rapid progress of the NGS applications and processing methods urgently require prompt update of the pipelines. Recent clinical applications of NGS technology such as cell-free DNA, cancer panel, or exosomal RNA sequencing data also require appropriate customization of the processing pipelines. Here, we developed SEQprocess, a highly extendable framework that can provide standard as well as customized pipelines for NGS data processing. RESULTS: SEQprocess was implemented in an R package with fully modularized steps for data processing that can be easily customized. Currently, six pre-customized pipelines are provided that can be easily executed by non-experts such as biomedical scientists, including the National Cancer Institute's (NCI) Genomic Data Commons (GDC) pipelines as well as the popularly used pipelines for variant calling (e.g., GATK) and estimation of allele frequency, RNA abundance (e.g., TopHat2/Cufflink), or DNA copy numbers (e.g., Sequenza). In addition, optimized pipelines for the clinical sequencing from cell-free DNA or miR-Seq are also provided. The processed data were transformed into R package-compatible data type 'ExpressionSet' or 'SummarizedExperiment', which could facilitate subsequent data analysis within R environment. Finally, an automated report summarizing the processing steps are also provided to ensure reproducibility of the NGS data analysis. CONCLUSION: SEQprocess provides a highly extendable and R compatible framework that can manage customized and reproducible pipelines for handling multiple legacy NGS processing tools.

Increased Expression of the Matrix-Modifying Enzyme Lysyl Oxidase-Like 2 in Aggressive Hepatocellular Carcinoma with Poor Prognosis.

Background/Aims: Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2), a collagen-modifying enzyme, has been implicated in cancer invasiveness and metastasis. Methods: We evaluated the expression of LOXL2 protein, in addition to carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX), keratin 19, epithelial cell adhesion molecule, and interleukin 6, in 105 resected hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) by immunohistochemistry. Results: LOXL2 positivity was found in 14.3% (15/105) of HCCs, and it was significantly associated with high serum α-fetoprotein levels, poor differentiation, fibrous stroma, portal vein invasion, and advanced TNM stage (p＜0.05 for all). Additionally, LOXL2 positivity was significantly associated with CAIX (p=0.005) and stromal interleukin 6 expression (p=0.001). Survival analysis of 99 HCC patients revealed LOXL2 positivity to be a poor prognostic factor; its prognostic impact appeared in progressed HCCs. Furthermore, LOXL2 positivity was shown to be an independent predictor of overall survival and disease-specific survival (p＜0.05 for all). Interestingly, co-expression of LOXL2 and CAIX was also an independent predictor for overall survival, disease-specific survival, disease-free survival, and extrahepatic recurrence-free survival (p＜0.05 for all). Conclusions: LOXL2 expression represents a subgroup of HCCs with more aggressive behavior and is suggested to be a poor prognostic marker in HCC patients.

Eupatilin inhibits angiogenesis-mediated human hepatocellular metastasis by reducing MMP-2 and VEGF signaling.

Metastasis is responsible for the great majority of deaths in cancer patients. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have critical functions in cancer metastasis. Especially, MMP-2 and MMP-9 play a major role in tumor-cell migration and invasion. Therefore, to first find out the inhibitory effect of eupatilin on expression of MMPs in SNU182 cells, we used quantitative real-rime PCR to measure MMP-2 and MMP-9 mRNA levels. Eupatilin suppressed transcription of MMP-2 in SNU182 cells more than did the corresponding controls. Also, eupatilin significantly blocked tube formation when treated with a concentration of 3.125 or 6.25 µg/mL on human umbilical vein vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs). Eupatilin induced significant anti-angiogenic potential associated with down-regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and phosphorylated Akt expression. Thus, tube-formation inhibition and MMP-2-mediated migration are likely to be important therapeutic targets of eupatilin in hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis.

Suppression of PROX1-mediated TERT expression in hepatitis B viral hepatocellular carcinoma.

Somatic mutations in the telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) promoter are related to telomerase activation and frequently occur at two hot spots located at -124 and -146 bp relative to the start codon in various cancers. Here, we investigated the occurrence and implications of genetic alterations in the TERT promoter in hepatitis B viral hepatocellular carcinoma (B viral HCC). TERT promoter mutations, especially -124C>T, clearly enhanced transcriptional activity in HCC cell lines. In contrast, TERT mRNA expression was lower in B viral HCC patients with TERT promoter mutations than in those without. We identified prospero homeobox protein 1 (PROX1) as a novel transcriptional activator of TERT; this protein was shown to have particularly strong binding affinity for the mutant TERT promoter. However, stable expression of the hepatitis B virus X (HBx) protein inhibited PROX1-mediated TERT expression in vitro. Our data suggest that TERT promoter mutations can enhance the promoter activity in HCC cell lines expressing PROX1 but are not the predominant mechanism of TERT upregulation in B viral HCC patients, based on the inhibition of PROX1-dependent transcriptional activation by HBx.

Increased expression of stemness markers and altered tumor stroma in hepatocellular carcinoma under TACE-induced hypoxia: A biopsy and resection matched study.

BACKGROUND: Hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) expressing stemness markers are characterized by an aggressive behavior, which might be promoted by an altered tumor stroma. Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) induces severe hypoxia, and its effect on stemness and tumor stroma of HCCs remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the sequential changes of stemness and tumor stroma under TACE-induced hypoxia using biopsy and resection-matched HCCs. METHODS: Forty-six biopsy and resection matched HCCs including 10 cases with and 36 cases without preoperative TACE were selected. Immunohistochemistry for stemness (keratin 19 [K19], epithelial cell adhesion molecule [EpCAM], and CD133), hypoxia (carbonic anhydrase IX [CAIX] and vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF]), and tumor stromal (α-smooth muscle actin [α-SMA] and fibroblast activation protein [FAP]) markers were performed and compared in matched biopsied and resected HCCs with and without TACE. RESULTS: The accuracy of K19, EpCAM, CD133, CAIX, VEGF, α-SMA and FAP detected on biopsied HCCs was 64% ∼ 86%, using the expression status in resected HCCs as a reference standard in non-TACE group. The sequential change of hypoxia, stemness and stromal marker expression in matched biopsied and resected HCC was greater in TACE group than in non-TACE group (P < 0.05 for all). The degree of stemness marker expression was well correlated with those of tumor stromal markers, and the degree of CAIX expression was well correlated with that of K19 (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Stemness marker expression is considered to be increased along with tumor stromal alteration under TACE-induced hypoxia, which might promote the aggressive biology of HCC.

Combined treatment with zingerone and its novel derivative synergistically inhibits TGF-ß1 induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition, migration and invasion of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an important cellular process during which polarized epithelial cells become motile mesenchymal cells, which promote cancer metastasis. Ginger, the rhizome of Zingiber officinale, is extensively used in cooking worldwide and also as a traditional medicinal herb with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. Several pungent compounds have been identified in ginger, including zingerone, which has anticancer potential. However, the role of zingerone in EMT is unclear. We investigated the synergistic effect of zingerone and its derivative on EMT. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-ß1) induces the EMT to promote hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis, including migration and invasion. To understand the repressive role of the combination of zingerone and its derivative (ZD 2) in hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis, we investigated the potential use of each compound of ginger, such as zingerone, ZD 2 and 6-shogaol, or the mixture of zingerone and ZD 2 (ZD 2-1) as inhibitors of TGF-ß1 induced EMT development in SNU182 hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro. We show that ZD 2-1, but not zingerone, ZD 2 and 6-shogaol significantly increased expression of the epithelial marker E-cadherin and repressed Snail upregulation and expression of the mesenchymal marker N-cadherin during initiation of the TGF-ß1 induced EMT. In addition, ZD 2-1 inhibited the TGF-ß1 induced increase in cell migration and invasion of SNU182 hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Furthermore, ZD 2-1 significantly inhibited TGF-ß1 regulated matrix metalloproteinase-2/9 and activation of Smad2/3. We also found that ZD 2-1 inhibited nuclear translocation of NF-κB, activation of p42/44 MAPK/AP1 signaling pathway in the TGF-ß1 induced EMT. Our findings provide new evidence that combined treatment with ZD 2, novel zingerone derivative, and zingerone synergistically suppresses hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis in vitro by inhibiting the TGF-ß1 induced EMT.

The synthetic ajoene analog SPA3015 induces apoptotic cell death through crosstalk between NF-κB and PPARγ in multidrug-resistant cancer cells.

Multidrug resistance (MDR) caused by P-glycoprotein (P-gp) overexpression impedes successful cancer chemotherapy. In this study, we investigated the anticancer effects of SPA3015, a synthetic ajoene analog, in P-gp-overexpressing MDR cancer cells (KBV20C and MES-SA/DX5). Treatment with SPA3015 caused a dramatic decrease in the cell viabilities of both KBV20C and MES-SA/DX5 cells. This decrease was accompanied by apoptotic cell death without affecting the expression level or drug efflux function of P-gp. SPA3015 selectively suppressed NF-κB reporter gene activity, which led to decreased expression of NF-κB target genes such as CIAP1, CIAP2, XIAP, and Bcl-XL. Surprisingly, nuclear localization and DNA binding affinity of the p65 subunit were not affected by SPA3015, suggesting that SPA3015 inhibits the transcriptional activity of NF-κB at the nucleus. Indeed, SPA3015 treatment led to an increase in the physical interaction of p65 with PPARγ, which resulted in the inhibition of NF-κB activity. Our findings support the hypothesis that SPA3015 inhibits NF-κB transcriptional activity by facilitating the physical interaction of the p65 subunit and PPARγ, which leads to apoptotic cell death in MDR cancer cells.

Abietic acid inhibits UVB-induced MMP-1 expression in human dermal fibroblast cells through PPARα/γ dual activation.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily of ligand-activated transcription factors and consist of three isotypes: PPARα, PPARß/δ and PPARγ. PPARs are expressed in various cell types in the skin, including keratinocytes, fibroblasts and infiltrating immune cells. Thus, these receptors are highly studied in dermato-endocrine research, and their ligands are targets for the treatment of various skin disorders, such as photoageing and chronological ageing of skin. Intensive studies have revealed that PPARα/γ functions in photoageing and age-related inflammation by regulating matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) via nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activator protein-1 (AP-1). However, the detailed mechanism of PPARα/γ's role in photoageing has not yet been elucidated. In this study, we confirmed that abietic acid (AA) is a PPARα/γ dual ligand and significantly decreased UVB-induced MMP-1 expression by downregulating UVB-induced MAPK signalling and downstream transcription factors, subsequently reducing IκBα degradation and blocking NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation in Hs68 human dermal fibroblast cells. Treatment of cells with AA and GW6471 or bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE), PPARα or PPARγ antagonists, respectively, reversed the effect on UVB-induced MMP-1 expression and inflammatory signalling pathway activation. Taken together, our data suggest that AA acts as a PPARα/γ dual activator to inhibit UVB-induced MMP-1 expression and age-related inflammation by suppressing NF-κB and the MAPK/AP-1 pathway and can be a useful agent for improving skin photoageing.

Sargahydroquinoic acid inhibits TNFα-induced AP-1 and NF-κB signaling in HaCaT cells through PPARα activation.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily of ligand-activated transcription factors and expressed in various cell types in the skin, including keratinocytes, fibroblasts and infiltrating immune cells. Thus, their ligands are targets for the treatment of various skin disorders, such as photo-aging and chronological aging of skin. Intensive studies have revealed that PPARα/γ functions in photo-aging and age-related inflammation by regulating matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) via activator protein-1 (AP-1) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). However, the detailed mechanism of PPARα/γ's role in skin aging has not yet been elucidated. In this study, we confirmed that sargahydroquinoic acid (SHQA) as a PPARα/γ ligand significantly decreased Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNFα)-induced MMP-2/-9 expression by downregulating TNFα-induced transcription factors, subsequently reducing IκBα degradation and blocking NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation in HaCaT human epidermal keratinocyte cells. Treatment of cells with SHQA and GW6471 (PPARα antagonist) not bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (PPARγ antagonists), reversed the effect on TNFα-induced inflammatory signaling pathway activation. Taken together, our data suggest that SHQA inhibit TNFα-induced MMP-2/-9 expression and age-related inflammation by suppressing AP-1 and NF-κB pathway via PPARα.