An antioxidant and anti-ER stress combination therapy elevates phosphorylation of α-Syn at serine 129 and alleviates post-TBI PD-like pathology in a sex-specific manner in mice.

Clinical studies have shown that traumatic brain injury (TBI) increases the onset of Parkinson's disease (PD) in later life by >50%. Oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and inflammation are the major drivers of both TBI and PD pathologies. We presently evaluated if curtailing oxidative stress and ER stress concomitantly using a combination of apocynin and tert-butylhydroquinone and salubrinal during the acute stage after TBI in mice reduces the severity of late-onset PD-like pathology. The effect of multiple low doses of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) on post-TBI neurodegeneration was also evaluated. The combo therapy elevated the level of phosphorylation at serine 129 (pS129) of α-Syn in the pericontusional cortex of male mice at 72 h post-TBI. Motor and cognitive deficits induced by TBI lasted at least 3 months and the combo therapy curtailed these deficits in both sexes. At 3 months post-TBI, male mice given combo therapy exhibited significantly lesser α-Syn aggregates in the SN and higher TH+ cells in the SNpc, compared to vehicle control. However, the aggregate number was not significantly different between groups of female mice. Moreover, TBI-induced loss of TH+ cells was negligible in female mice irrespective of treatment. The MPTP treatment aggravated PD-like pathology in male mice but had a negligible effect on the loss of TH+ cells in female mice. Thus, the present study indicates that mitigation of TBI-induced oxidative stress and ER stress at the acute stage could potentially reduce the risk of post-TBI PD-like pathology at least in male mice, plausibly by elevating pS129-α-Syn level.

Post-stroke brain can be protected by modulating the lncRNA FosDT.

We previously showed that knockdown or deletion of Fos downstream transcript (FosDT; a stroke-induced brain-specific long noncoding RNA) is neuroprotective. We presently tested the therapeutic potential of FosDT siRNA in rodents subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) using the Stroke Treatment Academic Industry Roundtable criteria, including sex, age, species, and comorbidity. FosDT siRNA (IV) given at 30 min of reperfusion significantly improved motor function recovery (rotarod test, beam walk test, and adhesive removal test) and reduced infarct size in adult and aged spontaneously hypertensive rats of both sexes. FosDT siRNA administered in a delayed fashion (3.5 h of reperfusion following 1 h transient MCAO) also significantly improved motor function recovery and decreased infarct volume. Furthermore, FosDT siRNA enhanced post-stroke functional recovery in normal and diabetic mice. Mechanistically, FosDT triggered post-ischemic neuronal damage via the transcription factor REST as REST siRNA mitigated the enhanced functional outcome in FosDT-/- rats. Additionally, NF-κB regulated FosDT expression as NF-κB inhibitor BAY 11-7082 significantly decreased post-ischemic FosDT induction. Thus, FosDT is a promising target with a favorable therapeutic window to mitigate secondary brain damage and facilitate recovery after stroke regardless of sex, age, species, and comorbidity.

Therapeutic Potential of Intravenous miR-21 Mimic after Stroke Following STAIR Criteria.

The microRNA-21 (miR-21) levels in the brain are crucial in determining post-stroke brain damage and recovery. The miR-21 exerts neuroprotection by targeting mRNAs that translate proteins that mediate brain damage. We currently determined the efficacy and efficiency of intravenously administered miR-21 mimic after focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Adult male mice were intravenously administered with either control mimic or miR-21 mimic at 5 min/2 h after reperfusion following 1 h transient middle cerebral artery occlusion to determine the therapeutic window of miR-21 mimic. Adult female, type-2 diabetic male, aged male, and aged female mice were administered with control/miR-21 mimic at 5 min after reperfusion following 35 min/1 h transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Early administration of miR-21 mimic significantly reduced brain damage and promoted long-term recovery after stroke. Further, miR-21 mimic is more effective in males than in females subjected to stroke. However, delayed treatment with miR-21 mimic is not efficacious, and type-2 diabetic subjects show no improvement with miR-21 mimic treatment.

Post-stroke depression: epigenetic and epitranscriptomic modifications and their interplay with gut microbiota.

Epigenetic and epitranscriptomic modifications that regulate physiological processes of an organism at the DNA and RNA levels, respectively, are novel therapeutic candidates for various neurological diseases. Gut microbiota and its metabolites are known to modulate DNA methylation and histone modifications (epigenetics), as well as RNA methylation especially N6-methyladenosine (epitranscriptomics). As gut microbiota as well as these modifications are highly dynamic across the lifespan of an organism, they are implicated in the pathogenesis of stroke and depression. The lack of specific therapeutic interventions for managing post-stroke depression emphasizes the need to identify novel molecular targets. This review highlights the interaction between the gut microbiota and epigenetic/epitranscriptomic pathways and their interplay in modulating candidate genes that are involved in post-stroke depression. This review further focuses on the three candidates, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor, ten-eleven translocation family proteins, and fat mass and obesity-associated protein based on their prevalence and pathoetiologic role in post-stroke depression.

Immunomodulatory role of glycoRNAs in the brain.

Glycosylation of lipids and proteins significantly increases the molecular diversity in the brain. Membrane-localized glycoconjugates facilitate critical neuro-immune interactions. Therefore, glycodysregulation is increasingly recognized as a novel hallmark of various acute and chronic neurological diseases. Although RNAs are heavily modified, they are never thought to be substrates for glycosylation due to their inaccessibility to the glycosylation machinery in the Golgi apparatus. The astonishing discovery of cell surface glycoRNAs opened new avenues for glycomedicine. This review highlighted the key features of GlycoRNAs and further discussed their potential immunomodulatory role in the brain, particularly focusing on post-stroke neuroinflammation.

Cerebroprotective Role of N6-Methyladenosine Demethylase FTO (Fat Mass and Obesity-Associated Protein) After Experimental Stroke.

BACKGROUND: FTO (fat mass and obesity-associated protein) demethylates N6-methyladenosine (m6A), which is a critical epitranscriptomic regulator of neuronal function. We previously reported that ischemic stroke induces m6A hypermethylation with a simultaneous decrease in FTO expression in neurons. Currently, we evaluated the functional significance of restoring FTO with an adeno-associated virus 9, and thus reducing m6A methylation in poststroke brain damage. METHODS: Adult male and female C57BL/6J mice were injected with FTO adeno-associated virus 9 (intracerebral) at 21 days prior to inducing transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Poststroke brain damage (infarction, atrophy, and white matter integrity) and neurobehavioral deficits (motor function, cognition, depression, and anxiety-like behaviors) were evaluated between days 1 and 28 of reperfusion. RESULTS: FTO overexpression significantly decreased the poststroke m6A hypermethylation. More importantly, exogenous FTO substantially decreased poststroke gray and white matter damage and improved motor function recovery, cognition, and depression-like behavior in both sexes. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that FTO-dependent m6A demethylation minimizes long-term sequelae of stroke independent of sex.

Seizurogenic effect of perfluorooctane sulfonate in zebrafish larvae.

While the developmental neurotoxicity of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) has been reported, its seizurogenic potential has not been investigated. Behavior assessment was conducted in zebrafish larvae exposed to PFOS at concentrations of 0, 0.1, 1, 5, 10, and 20 µM. Changes in electrophysiological signals and in the concentration of 20 neurochemicals were measured. Behavior assessment revealed that PFOS altered larval behaviors and significantly increased the counts and duration of bursting (an irregular high-speed movement). Electrophysiological analysis showed that the number of seizure-like events and duration of seizure-like signals were significantly increased, corresponding to results observed using pentylenetetrazol as a positive seizurogenic agent. The outbreak of seizures detected via abnormal electrophysiological signals was confirmed by the increased expression of c-fos and bdnf, which are typical seizure-related genes. Analysis of neurochemicals indicated that PFOS dysregulated overall neurotransmission systems, and aberrant endogenous concentrations of various neurochemicals in the amino acid, cholinergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic and kynurenergic, and GABAergic systems were associated with seizure-like behavior and signals. This study, the first to demonstrate that exposure to PFOS provokes a seizurogenic effect in developing zebrafish larvae, should stimulate further research on the association between PFOS exposure and neurodevelopmental toxicity or neurological disorders.

MMP-12 knockdown prevents secondary brain damage after ischemic stroke in mice.

We previously reported that increased expression of matrix metalloproteinase-12 (MMP-12) mediates blood-brain barrier disruption via tight junction protein degradation after focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Currently, we evaluated whether MMP-12 knockdown protects the post-stroke mouse brain and promotes better functional recovery. Adult male mice were injected with negative siRNA or MMP-12 siRNA (intravenous) at 5 min of reperfusion following 1 h transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. MMP-12 knockdown significantly reduced the post-ischemic infarct volume and improved motor and cognitive functional recovery. Mechanistically, MMP-12 knockdown ameliorated degradation of tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1, claudin-5, and occludin after focal ischemia. MMP-12 knockdown also decreased the expression of inflammatory mediators, including monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6, and the expression of apoptosis marker cleaved caspase-3 after ischemia. Overall, the present study indicates that MMP-12 promotes secondary brain damage after stroke and hence is a promising stroke therapeutic target.

Long-Lasting Unruptured Large Intracranial Aneurysm in Bilateral Moyamoya Disease: Case Report.

Introduction: The rupture risk of intracranial aneurysms in patients with moyamoya disease is higher than that in the general population. We report a confirmed case of moyamoya disease with bilateral middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion with a large and long-lasting aneurysm. Case: A 71-year-old woman visited the clinic with a large intracranial aneurysm. The patient was diagnosed with an ischemic stroke 2 months ago. She exhibited weakness in the left upper and lower extremities and dysarthria and was taking aspirin. The brain magnetic resonance imaging showed complete occlusion in the bilateral MCA proximal (M1) and a large 11 × 11 mm nonruptured cerebral aneurysm in the A3 segment of the left anterior cerebral artery. On transfemoral cerebral angiography, the patient was diagnosed with Suzuki grade VI moyamoya disease with bilateral MCA occlusion. After 7 years, the cerebral aneurysm size further increased, but it remained unruptured. Conclusions: Here, the patient had moyamoya disease with a large aneurysm, but aneurysmal rupture did not occur even after 7 years. Our case report might help in understanding the mechanisms of cerebral aneurysm occurrence and rupture in moyamoya patients.

Size-dependent seizurogenic effect of polystyrene microplastics in zebrafish embryos.

The effects of polystyrene microplastic (PS-MP) size on neurotoxicity remain to be evaluated at various microsizes, and the seizurogenic effects of PS-MPs are unknown. This study aimed to evaluate the swimming behavior of zebrafish larvae under light-dark transitions after exposure to four PS-MP sizes (i.e., 1, 6, 10, and 25 µm) at concentrations of 500, 5,000, and 50,000 particles/mL. Changes in electroencephalographic signals, seizure-related gene expression, and neurochemical concentrations were measured. Locomotor activity was inhibited only by 10-µm PS-MPs. According to electroencephalographic signals, the number and total duration of seizure-like events significantly increased by 10-µm PS-MPs, which was confirmed by the altered expression of seizure-related genes c-fos and pvalb5. Additionally, an increase in the levels of neurochemicals choline, betaine, dopamine, 3-methoxytyramine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid indicated that the observed hypoactivity and seizure-like behavior were associated with the dysregulation of the cholinergic, dopaminergic, and GABAergic systems. Overall, these findings demonstrate that exposure to PS-MPs can potentially cause seizurogenic effects in developing zebrafish embryos, and we highlight that PS-MPs 10 µm in size dominantly affect neurotoxicity.

Epigenetic mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets in stroke.

Accumulating evidence indicates a central role for epigenetic modifications in the progression of stroke pathology. These epigenetic mechanisms are involved in complex and dynamic processes that modulate post-stroke gene expression, cellular injury response, motor function, and cognitive ability. Despite decades of research, stroke continues to be classified as a leading cause of death and disability worldwide with limited clinical interventions. Thus, technological advances in the field of epigenetics may provide innovative targets to develop new stroke therapies. This review presents the evidence on the impact of epigenomic readers, writers, and erasers in both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke pathophysiology. We specifically explore the role of DNA methylation, DNA hydroxymethylation, histone modifications, and epigenomic regulation by long non-coding RNAs in modulating gene expression and functional outcome after stroke. Furthermore, we highlight promising pharmacological approaches and biomarkers in relation to epigenetics for translational therapeutic applications.

An antioxidant and anti-ER stress combo therapy decreases inflammation, secondary brain damage and promotes neurological recovery following traumatic brain injury in mice.

The complex pathophysiology of post-traumatic brain damage might need a polypharmacological strategy with a combination of drugs that target multiple, synergistic mechanisms. We currently tested a combination of apocynin (curtails formation of reactive oxygen species; ROS), tert-butylhydroquinone (promotes disposal of ROS), and salubrinal (prevents endoplasmic reticulum stress) following a moderate traumatic brain injury (TBI) induced by controlled cortical impact in adult mice. Adult mice of both sexes treated with the above tri-combo showed alleviated motor and cognitive deficits, attenuated secondary lesion volume, and decreased oxidative DNA damage. Concomitantly, tri-combo treatment regulated post-TBI inflammatory response by decreasing the infiltration of T cells and neutrophils and activation of microglia in both sexes. Interestingly, sexual dimorphism was seen in the case of TBI-induced microgliosis and infiltration of macrophages in the tri-combo treated mice. Moreover, the tri-combo treatment prevented TBI-induced white matter volume loss in both sexes. The beneficial effects of tri-combo treatment were long-lasting and were also seen in aged mice. Thus, the present study supports the tri-combo treatment to curtail oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress concomitantly as a therapeutic strategy to improve TBI outcomes.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTOf the several mechanisms that contribute to TBI pathophysiology, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and inflammation play a major role. The present study shows the therapeutic potential of a combination of apocynin, tert-butylhydroquinone, and salubrinal to prevent oxidative stress and ER stress and the interrelated inflammatory response in mice subjected to TBI. The beneficial effects of the tri-combo include alleviation of TBI-induced motor and cognitive deficits and lesion volume. The neuroprotective effects of the tri-combo are also linked to its ability to prevent TBI-induced white matter damage. Importantly, neuroprotection by the tri-combo treatment was observed to be not dependent on sex or age. Our data demonstrate that a polypharmacological strategy is efficacious after TBI.

A selective fluorescence sensor for hypochlorite used for the detection of hypochlorite in zebrafish.

Hypochlorite is used as a water disinfectant and it is also produced by biological organisms. Its detection and quantification is important and could lead to its mechanism of reactivity in cells. We have synthesized a new fluorescence sensor for hypochlorite based on bithiophene and furan-carbohydrazide. The sensor shows increased fluorescence as a function of hypochlorite and is selective for hypochlorite. Fluorescence enhancement due to hypochlorite is observed when the sensor is used in aqueous solutions at neutral pH values. Using the sensor, the detection limit for hypochlorite is 4.2 µM, making the sensor practical to determine hypochlorite in water. Applying the sensor to aide in the detection of hypochlorite in zebrafish, showed localization of ClO-/HClO in the air bladders and eyes of zebrafish.

SGIP1α, but Not SGIP1, is an Ortholog of FCHo Proteins and Functions as an Endocytic Regulator.

Src homology 3-domain growth factor receptor-bound 2-like interacting protein 1 (SGIP1), originally known as a regulator of energy homeostasis, was later found to be an ortholog of Fer/Cip4 homology domain-only (FCHo) proteins and to function during endocytosis. SGIP1α is a longer splicing variant in mouse brains that contains additional regions in the membrane phospholipid-binding domain (MP) and C-terminal region, but functional consequences with or without additional regions between SGIP1 and SGIP1α remain elusive. Moreover, many previous studies have either inadvertently used SGIP1 instead of SGIP1α or used the different isoforms with or without additional regions indiscriminately, resulting in further confusion. Here, we report that the additional region in the MP is essential for SGIP1α to deform membrane into tubules and for homo-oligomerization, and SGIP1, which lacks this region, fails to perform these functions. Moreover, only SGIP1α rescued endocytic defects caused by FCHo knock-down. Thus, our results indicate that SGIP1α, but not SGIP1, is the functional ortholog of FCHos, and SGIP1 and SGIP1α are not functionally redundant. These findings suggest that caution should be taken in interpreting the role of SGIP1 in endocytosis.

SGIP1α functions as a selective endocytic adaptor for the internalization of synaptotagmin 1 at synapses.

Proper sorting of exocytosed synaptic vesicle (SV) proteins into individual SVs during endocytosis is of the utmost importance for the fidelity of subsequent neurotransmission. Recent studies suggest that each SV protein is sorted into individual SVs by its own dedicated adaptors as well as by association between SV proteins. The SH3-containing GRB2-like protein 3-interacting protein 1 (SGIP1), an ortholog of Fer/Cip4 homology domain-only (FCHo) proteins, contains a µ-homology domain (µHD) and binds AP-2 and Eps15, thus functioning as an endocytic regulator of clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). Its longest isoform SGIP1α is predominantly expressed in the brain but the functional significance of SGIP1 in SV recycling remains unknown. Here, we found that SGIP1α, a brain-specific long isoform of SGIP1 binds synaptotagmin1 (Syt1) via its µHD and promotes the internalization of Syt1 on the neuronal surface. The small hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated knockdown (KD) of SGIP1α caused selective impairment of Syt1 internalization at hippocampal synapses and it was fully rescued by coexpression of the shRNA-resistant form of SGIP1α in KD neurons. We further found that the µHD of SGIP1α is structurally similar to those of AP-2 and stonin2, and mutations at Trp771 and Lys781, which correspond to Syt1-recognition motifs of AP-2 and stonin2, to Ala bound less efficiently to Syt1 and failed to rescue the endocytic defect of Syt1 caused by KD. Our results indicate that SGIP1α is an endocytic adaptor dedicated to the retrieval of surface-stranded Syt1. Since endocytic sorting of Syt1 is also mediated by the overlapping activities of synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A/B (SV2A/B) and stonin2, our results suggest that complementary fail-safe mechanism by these proteins ensures high fidelity of Syt1 retrieval.

nArgBP2 regulates excitatory synapse formation by controlling dendritic spine morphology.

Neural Abelson-related gene-binding protein 2 (nArgBP2) was originally identified as a protein that directly interacts with synapse-associated protein 90/postsynaptic density protein 95-associated protein 3 (SAPAP3), a postsynaptic scaffolding protein critical for the assembly of glutamatergic synapses. Although genetic deletion of nArgBP2 in mice leads to manic/bipolar-like behaviors resembling many aspects of symptoms in patients with bipolar disorder, the actual function of nArgBP2 at the synapse is completely unknown. Here, we found that the knockdown (KD) of nArgBP2 by specific small hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) resulted in a dramatic change in dendritic spine morphology. Reintroducing shRNA-resistant nArgBP2 reversed these defects. In particular, nArgBP2 KD impaired spine-synapse formation such that excitatory synapses terminated mostly at dendritic shafts instead of spine heads in spiny neurons, although inhibitory synapse formation was not affected. nArgBP2 KD further caused a marked increase of actin cytoskeleton dynamics in spines, which was associated with increased Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein-family verprolin homologous protein 1 (WAVE1)/p21-activated kinase (PAK) phosphorylation and reduced activity of cofilin. These effects of nArgBP2 KD in spines were rescued by inhibiting PAK or activating cofilin combined with sequestration of WAVE. Together, our results suggest that nArgBP2 functions to regulate spine morphogenesis and subsequent spine-synapse formation at glutamatergic synapses. They also raise the possibility that the aberrant regulation of synaptic actin filaments caused by reduced nArgBP2 expression may contribute to the manifestation of the synaptic dysfunction observed in manic/bipolar disorder.