N-GSDMD trafficking to neutrophil organelles facilitates IL-1ß release independently of plasma membrane pores and pyroptosis.

Gasdermin-D (GSDMD) in inflammasome-activated macrophages is cleaved by caspase-1 to generate N-GSDMD fragments. N-GSDMD then oligomerizes in the plasma membrane (PM) to form pores that increase membrane permeability, leading to pyroptosis and IL-1ß release. In contrast, we report that although N-GSDMD is required for IL-1ß secretion in NLRP3-activated human and murine neutrophils, N-GSDMD does not localize to the PM or increase PM permeability or pyroptosis. Instead, biochemical and microscopy studies reveal that N-GSDMD in neutrophils predominantly associates with azurophilic granules and LC3+ autophagosomes. N-GSDMD trafficking to azurophilic granules causes leakage of neutrophil elastase into the cytosol, resulting in secondary cleavage of GSDMD to an alternatively cleaved N-GSDMD product. Genetic analyses using ATG7-deficient cells indicate that neutrophils secrete IL-1ß via an autophagy-dependent mechanism. These findings reveal fundamental differences in GSDMD trafficking between neutrophils and macrophages that underlie neutrophil-specific functions during inflammasome activation.

Microbes mediate mitochondrial misinformation to misguide neutrophils.

Discussion on LPS disruption of mitochondrial localization and autocrine purinergic signaling in neutrophil chemotaxis for control of E. coli infection.

Neutrophil Caspase-11 Is Required for Cleavage of Caspase-1 and Secretion of IL-1ß in Aspergillus fumigatus Infection.

Neutrophils are an important source of IL-1ß secretion in bacterial infections, where they infiltrate affected tissues in log-fold higher numbers than macrophages. Neutrophils also have functional NLRP3 and NLRC4 inflammasomes that can process pro-IL-1ß to the bioactive 17-kDa form. In the current study, we examined the role of IL-1ß in response to corneal infection with the filamentous fungus Aspergillus fumigatus and found that neutrophils were the predominant source of bioactive IL-1ß in the cornea. We also observed that caspase-11-/- mice exhibit the same susceptibility phenotype as IL-1ß-/-, ASC-/-, NLRP3-/-, and caspase-1-/- mice, with impaired neutrophil recruitment to infected corneas and increased hyphal growth. We further demonstrate that caspase-11 is required for caspase-1 activation and IL-1ß processing during infection. In vitro, we show that caspase-11 is regulated by the common type I IFN receptor (IFNAR) through JAK-STAT signaling and that caspase-11 is required for speck formation and caspase-1 activity. Aspergillus spores (conidia) stimulate IL-1ß processing and secretion in neutrophils activation of Dectin-1 and signaling through the Raf1 kinase/MEKK rather than the spleen tyrosine kinase pathway. Collectively, these findings reveal unexpected regulation of IL-1ß production by neutrophils in response to pathogenic fungi.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Effector ExoS Inhibits ROS Production in Human Neutrophils.

Neutrophils are the first line of defense against bacterial infections, and the generation of reactive oxygen species is a key part of their arsenal. Pathogens use detoxification systems to avoid the bactericidal effects of reactive oxygen species. Here we demonstrate that the Gram-negative pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is susceptible to reactive oxygen species but actively blocks the reactive oxygen species burst using two type III secreted effector proteins, ExoS and ExoT. ExoS ADP-ribosylates Ras and prevents it from interacting with and activating phosphoinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), which is required to stimulate the phagocytic NADPH-oxidase that generates reactive oxygen species. ExoT also affects PI3K signaling via its ADP-ribosyltransferase activity but does not act directly on Ras. A non-ribosylatable version of Ras restores reactive oxygen species production and results in increased bacterial killing. These findings demonstrate that subversion of the host innate immune response requires ExoS-mediated ADP-ribosylation of Ras in neutrophils.

Neutrophil P2X7 receptors mediate NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent IL-1ß secretion in response to ATP.

Although extracellular ATP is abundant at sites of inflammation, its role in activating inflammasome signalling in neutrophils is not well characterized. In the current study, we demonstrate that human and murine neutrophils express functional cell-surface P2X7R, which leads to ATP-induced loss of intracellular K(+), NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1ß secretion. ATP-induced P2X7R activation caused a sustained increase in intracellular [Ca(2+)], which is indicative of P2X7R channel opening. Although there are multiple polymorphic variants of P2X7R, we found that neutrophils from multiple donors express P2X7R, but with differential efficacies in ATP-induced increase in cytosolic [Ca(2+)]. Neutrophils were also the predominant P2X7R-expressing cells during Streptococcus pneumoniae corneal infection, and P2X7R was required for bacterial clearance. Given the ubiquitous presence of neutrophils and extracellular ATP in multiple inflammatory conditions, ATP-induced P2X7R activation and IL-1ß secretion by neutrophils likely has a significant, wide ranging clinical impact.

Neutrophil IL-1ß processing induced by pneumolysin is mediated by the NLRP3/ASC inflammasome and caspase-1 activation and is dependent on K+ efflux.

Although neutrophils are the most abundant cells in acute infection and inflammation, relatively little attention has been paid to their role in inflammasome formation and IL-1ß processing. In the present study, we investigated the mechanism by which neutrophils process IL-1ß in response to Streptococcus pneumoniae. Using a murine model of S. pneumoniae corneal infection, we demonstrated a requirement for IL-1ß in bacterial clearance, and we showed that Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3), apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase activation and recruitment domain (ASC), and caspase-1 are essential for IL-1ß production and bacterial killing in the cornea. Neutrophils in infected corneas had multiple specks with enzymatically active caspase-1 (YVAD-FLICA 660), and bone marrow neutrophils stimulated with heat-killed S. pneumoniae (signal 1) and pneumolysin (signal 2) exhibited multiple specks when stained for NLRP3, ASC, or Caspase-1. High-molecular mass ASC complexes were also detected, consistent with oligomer formation. Pneumolysin induced K(+) efflux in neutrophils, and blocking K(+) efflux inhibited caspase-1 activation and IL-1ß processing; however, neutrophils did not undergo pyroptosis, indicating that K(+) efflux and IL-1ß processing is not a consequence of cell death. There was also no role for lysosomal destabilization or neutrophil elastase in pneumolysin-mediated IL-1ß processing in neutrophils. Taken together, these findings demonstrate an essential role for neutrophil-derived IL-1ß in S. pneumoniae infection, and they elucidate the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in cleavage and secretion of IL-1ß in neutrophils. Given the ubiquitous presence of neutrophils in acute bacterial and fungal infections, these findings will have implications for other microbial diseases.

CD14 mediates Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) endocytosis and spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) and interferon regulatory transcription factor 3 (IRF3) activation in epithelial cells and impairs neutrophil infiltration and Pseudomonas aeruginosa killing in vivo.

In the current study, we examined the role of CD14 in regulating LPS activation of corneal epithelial cells and Pseudomonas aeruginosa corneal infection. Our findings demonstrate that LPS induces Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) internalization in corneal epithelial cells and that blocking with anti-CD14 selectively inhibits TLR4 endocytosis, spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) and IRF3 phosphorylation, and production of CCL5/RANTES and IFN-ß, but not IL-8. Using a murine model of P. aeruginosa corneal infection, we show that although infected CD14(-/-) corneas produce less CCL5, they exhibit significantly increased CXC chemokine production, neutrophil recruitment to the corneal stroma, and bacterial clearance than C57BL/6 mice. We conclude that CD14 has a critical role in mediating TLR4 signaling through IRF3 in resident corneal epithelial cells and macrophages and thereby modulates TLR4 cell surface activation of the MyD88/NF-κB/AP-1 pathway and production of CXC chemokines and neutrophil infiltration to infected tissues.

Host defense at the ocular surface.

Microbial infections of the cornea frequently cause painful, blinding and debilitating disease that is often difficult to treat and may require corneal transplantation. In addition, sterile corneal infiltrates that are associated with contact lens wear cause pain, visual impairment and photophobia. In this article, we review the role of Toll-Like Receptors (TLR) in bacterial keratitis and sterile corneal infiltrates, and describe the role of MD-2 regulation in LPS responsiveness by corneal epithelial cells. We conclude that both live bacteria and bacterial products activate Toll-Like Receptors in the cornea, which leads to chemokine production and neutrophil recruitment to the corneal stroma. While neutrophils are essential for bacterial killing, they also cause tissue damage that results in loss of corneal clarity. These disparate outcomes, therefore, represent a spectrum of disease severity based on this pathway, and further indicate that targeting the TLR pathway is a feasible approach to treating inflammation caused by live bacteria and microbial products. Further, as the P. aeruginosa type III secretion system (T3SS) also plays a critical role in disease pathogenesis by inducing neutrophil apoptosis and facilitating bacterial growth in the cornea, T3SS exotoxins are additional targets for therapy for P. aeruginosa keratitis.

Cutting edge: IL-1ß processing during Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection is mediated by neutrophil serine proteases and is independent of NLRC4 and caspase-1.

To examine the role of caspase-1 and the NLRC4 inflammasome during bacterial infection, C57BL/6, IL-1ß(-/-), caspase-1(-/-), and NLRC4(-/-) mouse corneas were infected with ExoS/T- or ExoU-expressing Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We found that IL-1ß was essential for neutrophil recruitment and bacterial clearance and was produced by myeloid cells rather than resident cells. In addition, neutrophils were found to be the primary source of mature IL-1ß during infection, and there was no significant difference in IL-1ß processing between C57BL/6 and caspase-1(-/-) or NLRC4(-/-) infected corneas. IL-1ß cleavage by human and mouse neutrophils was blocked by serine protease inhibitors and was impaired in infected neutrophil elastase (NE)(-/-) corneas. NE(-/-) mice also had an impaired ability to clear the infection. Together, these results demonstrate that during P. aeruginosa infection, neutrophils are the primary source of mature IL-1ß and that IL-1ß processing is dependent on serine proteases and not NLRC4 or caspase-1.

ExoS and ExoT ADP ribosyltransferase activities mediate Pseudomonas aeruginosa keratitis by promoting neutrophil apoptosis and bacterial survival.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a leading cause of blinding corneal ulcers worldwide. To determine the role of type III secretion in the pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa keratitis, corneas of C57BL/6 mice were infected with P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 or PAK, which expresses ExoS, ExoT, and ExoY, but not ExoU. PAO1- and PAK-infected corneas developed severe disease with pronounced opacification and rapid bacterial growth. In contrast, corneas infected with ΔpscD or ΔpscJ mutants that cannot assemble a type III secretion system, or with mutants lacking the translocator proteins, do not develop clinical disease, and bacteria are rapidly killed by infiltrating neutrophils. Furthermore, survival of PAO1 and PAK strains in the cornea and development of corneal disease was impaired in ΔexoS, ΔexoT, and ΔexoST mutants of both strains, but not in a ΔexoY mutant. ΔexoST mutants were also rapidly killed in neutrophils in vitro and were impaired in their ability to promote neutrophil apoptosis in vivo compared with PAO1. Point mutations in the ADP ribosyltransferase (ADPR) regions of ExoS or ExoT also impaired proapoptotic activity in infected neutrophils, and exoST(ADPR-) mutants replicated the ΔexoST phenotype in vitro and in vivo, whereas mutations in rho-GTPase-activating protein showed the same phenotype as PAO1. Together, these findings demonstrate that the pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa keratitis in ExoS- and ExoT-producing strains is almost entirely due to their ADPR activities, which subvert the host response by targeting the antibacterial activity of infiltrating neutrophils.

TLR4 and TLR5 on corneal macrophages regulate Pseudomonas aeruginosa keratitis by signaling through MyD88-dependent and -independent pathways.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a major cause of blindness and visual impairment in the United States and worldwide. Using a murine model of keratitis in which abraded corneas are infected with P. aeruginosa parent and ΔfliC (aflagellar) strains 19660 and PAO1, we found that F4/80(+) macrophages were the predominant cell type in the cornea expressing TLR2, TLR4, and TLR5. Depletion of macrophages and dendritic cells using transgenic Mafia mice, in which Fas ligand is selectively activated in these cells, resulted in diminished cytokine production and cellular infiltration to the corneal stroma and unimpaired bacterial growth. TLR4(-/-) mice showed a similar phenotype postinfection with ΔfliC strains, whereas TLR4/5(-/-) mice were susceptible to corneal infection with parent strains. Bone marrow-derived macrophages stimulated with ΔfliC bacteria induced Toll/IL-1R intracellular domain (TIR)-containing adaptor inducing IFN-ß (TRIF)-dependent phosphorylation of IFN regulatory factor 3 in addition to TIR-containing adaptor protein/MyD88-dependent phosphorylation of IκB and nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit of NFκB. Furthermore, TRIF(-/-) mice showed a similar phenotype as TLR4(-/-) mice in regulating only ΔfliC bacteria, whereas MyD88(-/-) mice were unable to clear parent or ΔfliC bacteria. Finally, IL-1R1(-/-) and IL-1α/ß(-/-) mice were highly susceptible to infection. Taken together, these findings indicate that P. aeruginosa activates TLR4/5 on resident corneal macrophages, which signal through TRIF and TIR-containing adaptor protein/MyD88 pathways, leading to NF-κB translocation to the nucleus, transcription of CXCL1 and other CXC chemokines, recruitment of neutrophils to the corneal stroma, and subsequent bacterial killing and tissue damage. IL-1α and IL-1ß are also produced, which activate an IL-1R1/MyD88-positive feedback loop in macrophages and IL-1R on other resident cells in the cornea.