Gene Expression and Protein Abundance of Nuclear Receptors in Human Intestine and Liver: A New Application for Mass Spectrometry-Based Targeted Proteomics.

BACKGROUND: Unwanted drug-drug interactions (DDIs), as caused by the upregulation of clinically relevant drug metabolizing enzymes and transporter proteins in intestine and liver, have the potential to threaten the therapeutic efficacy and safety of drugs. The molecular mechanism of this undesired but frequently occurring scenario of polypharmacy is based on the activation of nuclear receptors such as the pregnane X receptor (PXR) or the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) by perpetrator agents such as rifampin, phenytoin or St. John's wort. However, the expression pattern of nuclear receptors in human intestine and liver remains uncertain, which makes it difficult to predict the extent of potential DDIs. Thus, it was the aim of this study to characterize the gene expression and protein abundance of clinically relevant nuclear receptors, i.e., the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), CAR, farnesoid X receptor (FXR), glucocorticoid receptor (GR), hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α), PXR and small heterodimer partner (SHP), in the aforementioned organs. METHODS: Gene expression analysis was performed by quantitative real-time PCR of jejunal, ileal, colonic and liver samples from eight human subjects. In parallel, a targeted proteomic method was developed and validated in order to determine the respective protein amounts of nuclear receptors in human intestinal and liver samples. The LC-MS/MS method was validated according to the current bioanalytical guidelines and met the criteria regarding linearity (0.1-50 nmol/L), within-day and between-day accuracy and precision, as well as the stability criteria. RESULTS: The developed method was successfully validated and applied to determine the abundance of nuclear receptors in human intestinal and liver samples. Gene expression and protein abundance data demonstrated marked differences in human intestine and liver. On the protein level, only AhR and HNF4α could be detected in gut and liver, which corresponds to their highest gene expression. In transfected cell lines, PXR and CAR could be quantified. CONCLUSIONS: The substantially different expression pattern of nuclear receptors in human intestinal and liver tissue may explain the different extent of unwanted DDIs in the dependence on the administration route of drugs.

Targeting OCT3 attenuates doxorubicin-induced cardiac injury.

Doxorubicin is a commonly used anticancer agent that can cause debilitating and irreversible cardiac injury. The initiating mechanisms contributing to this side effect remain unknown, and current preventative strategies offer only modest protection. Using stem-cell-derived cardiomyocytes from patients receiving doxorubicin, we probed the transcriptomic landscape of solute carriers and identified organic cation transporter 3 (OCT3) (SLC22A3) as a critical transporter regulating the cardiac accumulation of doxorubicin. Functional validation studies in heterologous overexpression models confirmed that doxorubicin is transported into cardiomyocytes by OCT3 and that deficiency of OCT3 protected mice from acute and chronic doxorubicin-related changes in cardiovascular function and genetic pathways associated with cardiac damage. To provide proof-of-principle and demonstrate translational relevance of this transport mechanism, we identified several pharmacological inhibitors of OCT3, including nilotinib, and found that pharmacological targeting of OCT3 can also preserve cardiovascular function following treatment with doxorubicin without affecting its plasma levels or antitumor effects in multiple models of leukemia and breast cancer. Finally, we identified a previously unrecognized, OCT3-dependent pathway of doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity that results in a downstream signaling cascade involving the calcium-binding proteins S100A8 and S100A9. These collective findings not only shed light on the etiology of doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity, but also are of potential translational relevance and provide a rationale for the implementation of a targeted intervention strategy to prevent this debilitating side effect.

Expression and Functional Contribution of Different Organic Cation Transporters to the Cellular Uptake of Doxorubicin into Human Breast Cancer and Cardiac Tissue.

Doxorubicin is a frequently used anticancer drug to treat many types of tumors, such as breast cancer or bronchial carcinoma. The clinical use of doxorubicin is limited by its poorly predictable cardiotoxicity, the reasons of which are so far not fully understood. The drug is a substrate of several efflux transporters such as P-gp or BCRP and was recently reported to be a substrate of cation uptake transporters. To evaluate the potential role of transporter proteins in the accumulation of doxorubicin at its site of action (e.g., mammary carcinoma cells) or adverse effects (e.g., heart muscle cells), we studied the expression of important uptake and efflux transporters in human breast cancer and cardiac tissue, and investigated the affinity of doxorubicin to the identified transporters. The cellular uptake studies on doxorubicin were performed with OATP1A2*1, OATP1A2*2, and OATP1A2*3-overexpressing HEK293 cells, as well as OCT1-, OCT2-, and OCT3- overexpressing MDCKII cells. To assess the contribution of transporters to the cytotoxic effect of doxorubicin, we determined the cell viability in the presence and absence of transporter inhibitors in different cell lines. Several transporters, including P-gp, BCRP, OCT1, OCT3, and OATP1A2 were expressed in human heart and/or breast cancer tissue. Doxorubicin could be identified as a substrate of OCT1, OCT2, OCT3, and OATP1A2. The cellular uptake into cells expressing genetic OATP1A2 variants was markedly reduced and correlated well with the increased cellular viability. Inhibition of OATP1A2 (naringin) and OCT transporters (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium) resulted in a significant decrease of doxorubicin-mediated cytotoxicity in cell lines expressing the respective transporters. Similarly, the excipient Cremophor EL significantly inhibited the OCT1-3- and OATP1A2-mediated cellular uptake and attenuated the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin. In conclusion, genetic and environmental-related variability in the expression and function of these transporters may contribute to the substantial variability seen in terms of doxorubicin efficacy and toxicity.

Novel 3D organotypic urothelial cell culture model for identification of new therapeutic approaches in urological infections.

PURPOSE: 3D organotypic cell cultures offer the possibility to study cell growth in a more in vivo like situation. To our knowledge no 3D culture of primary urothelial cells has been established yet. BK Polyomavirus (BKPyV), replicating in urothelial cells, may cause haemorrhagic cystitis in immunocompromised patients. PRIMARY ENDPOINTS OF THIS STUDY: Establishment of a 3D organotypic cell culture of primary urothelial cells and fibroblasts; use of this model as infection model for archetype BKPyV; description of first parts of viral life cycle with identification of therapeutic targets. METHODS: This is an experimental study. Primary urothelial cells were purchased from CellnTec, Bern, Switzerland; fibroblasts were isolated from the ureter of patients with no urothelial malignancy in their medical history. As main methods we used quantitative real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Outcomes were analysed using SPSS 23.0. RESULTS: We were able to develop a 3D organotypic culture for primary urothelium. An infection with archetype BKPyV was established in this model with virus replication rates up to 6.41 × 108 copies/ml on day 9 following Infection. Interestingly, proliferation rate of the urothelial cells is significantly (p = 0.049 at day 6 following infection) elevated while cells are losing differentiation under infection. Phosphorylated STAT3 is also significantly elevated (p < 0.0001) during infection. CONCLUSIONS: The established of urothelial 3D cultures is a new method to study several urothelial diseases. The archetype BKPyV infection model is novel and the first method to study archetype viral life cycle. The STAT3 pathway might be an interesting target for the development of a causal therapy.

Affinity of Ketamine to Clinically Relevant Transporters.

Ketamine is a widely used intravenous anesthetic drug that has also a pronounced analgesic effect. Moreover, one of its metabolites was very recently shown to possess antidepressant activity. Consequently, oral administration of ketamine may become of interest in the future. There is evidence from in vitro data, drug-drug interactions, and the physicochemical properties of the drug that ketamine may be a substrate of drug transporters. Thus, it was the aim of this study to investigate the affinity of ketamine to clinically relevant transporter proteins that are expected to affect its intestinal absorption, distribution, and excretion. Ketamine was shown to be significantly taken up in a time- and concentration-dependent manner by OCT1-3. The affinity to OCT transporters at pH 6.5 (Km ≈ 35-75 µM) was clearly higher than that at pH 7.4. In addition, ketamine permeability was markedly lower at pH 6.5 than at pH 7.4 in a parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA). Ketamine showed a low but significant affinity to P-gp at pH 6.5. In contrast to this, we could not detect any transport of ketamine by MATE1/2K. In conclusion, ketamine is a substrate for OCT1-3 and P-gp but is not recognized by MATE1/2K. Considering that ketamine is a lipophilic base that mainly exists as a cationic moiety (>90%) in the intestinal lumen, we conclude that the OCT-mediated cellular uptake as well as P-gp efflux is expected to be only of relevance in the human intestine (i.e., in the case of oral drug administration), where OCT1, OCT3, and P-gp are stably expressed at the apical membrane. On the other side, P-gp is not expected to contribute significantly to tissue (brain) distribution or renal excretion of ketamine.

The Ussing Chamber Assay to Study Drug Metabolism and Transport in the Human Intestine.

The Ussing chamber is an old but still powerful technique originally designed to study the vectorial transport of ions through frog skin. This technique is also used to investigate the transport of chemical agents through the intestinal barrier as well as drug metabolism in enterocytes, both of which are key determinants for the bioavailability of orally administered drugs. More contemporary model systems, such as Caco-2 cell monolayers or stably transfected cells, are more limited in their use compared to the Ussing chamber because of differences in expression rates of transporter proteins and/or metabolizing enzymes. While there are limitations to the Ussing chamber assay, the use of human intestinal tissue remains the best laboratory test for characterizing the transport and metabolism of compounds following oral administration. Detailed in this unit is a step-by-step protocol for preparing human intestinal tissue, for designing Ussing chamber experiments, and for analyzing and interpreting the findings. © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

A CRISPR-Cas9 Generated MDCK Cell Line Expressing Human MDR1 Without Endogenous Canine MDR1 (cABCB1): An Improved Tool for Drug Efflux Studies.

Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) II cells stably transfected with transport proteins are commonly used models for drug transport studies. However, endogenous expression of especially canine MDR1 (cMDR1) confounds the interpretation of such studies. Here we have established an MDCK cell line stably overexpressing the human MDR1 transporter (hMDR1; P-glycoprotein), and used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing to knockout the endogenous cMDR1. Genomic screening revealed the generation of a clonal cell line homozygous for a 4-nucleotide deletion in the canine ABCB1 gene leading to a frameshift and a premature stop codon. Knockout of cMDR1 expression was verified by quantitative protein analysis and functional studies showing retained activity of the human MDR1 transporter. Application of this cell line allowed unbiased reclassification of drugs previously defined as both substrates and non-substrates in different studies using commonly used MDCK-MDR1 clones. Our new MDCK-hMDR1 cell line, together with a previously developed control cell line, both with identical deletions in the canine ABCB1 gene and lack of cMDR1 expression represent excellent in vitro tools for use in drug discovery.

The Organic Anion-Transporting Peptide 2B1 Is Localized in the Basolateral Membrane of the Human Jejunum and Caco-2 Monolayers.

The organic anion-transporting polypeptide (OATP) 2B1 which is ubiquitously expressed in the human body is assumed to play an important role in the cellular uptake of many drugs. Although the expression and function of this solute carrier transporter is well characterized in the human liver and other tissues, little is known about its localization and functional relevance in the intestine. Thus, it was the aim of this study to investigate its localization and function in the human jejunum and in the frequently used intestinal Caco-2 cell line. The basolateral membrane of jejunal tissue from 6 individuals showed a significant enrichment of OATP2B1 (17-fold) and the known basolateral proteins ABCC3 and Na/K-ATPase compared to the apical membrane as derived from targeted proteomics analysis. On the contrary, apical localization could be confirmed for ABCB1, ABCC2, and PEPT1. Basolateral localization of OATP2B1 could also be verified in Caco-2 cells. Bidirectional transport studies with established OATP2B1 substrates (sulfasalazine and pravastatin) across freshly exercised human jejunum and Caco-2 cell monolayers demonstrated a markedly higher transport from the basal to the apical compartment than in the opposite direction. Our data provide evidence for a basolateral localization of OATP2B1 which may improve our understanding of intestinal drug absorption.

Effects of frequently used pharmaceutical excipients on the organic cation transporters 1-3 and peptide transporters 1/2 stably expressed in MDCKII cells.

There is ample evidence that pharmaceutical excipients, which are supposed to be pharmacologically inactive, have an impact on drug metabolism and efflux transport. So far, little is known whether they also modulate uptake transporter proteins. We have recently shown that commonly used solubilizing agents exert significant effects on the function of organic anion uptake transporting polypeptides. Therefore, we investigated in this study the influence of frequently used pharmaceutical excipients on the transport activity of organic cation transporters OCT1, OCT2 and OCT3 and the peptide transporters PEPT1 and PEPT2. Inhibition of the OCTs and PEPTs by the excipients polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG), hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HPCD), Solutol® HS15 (SOL), Cremophor® EL (CrEL), Tween® 20 (Tw20), Tween® 80 (Tw80), Kolliphor® P188 (P188) and Kolliphor® P407 (P407) was evaluated using stably transfected MDCKII cells with radio-labeled reference substrates and established inhibitors as controls. Intracellular accumulation of [3H]-1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) for the OCTs and [3H]-glycyl-sarcosine (Gly-Sar) for the PEPTs was measured by liquid scintillation counting after cell lysis. Our studies revealed that PEG, HPCD, SOL, CrEL, Tw20 and Tw80 were potent inhibitors of OCT1-3 (e.g., Tw20 IC50 values<0.04%). Cellular uptake of Gly-Sar by PEPT1 and PEPT2 was strongly inhibited by both Tw20 and Tw80. SOL was also a strong inhibitor of PEPT1 and PEPT2 (e.g., SOL IC50 values<0.02%), while CrEL showed significantly inhibition of only PEPT2. The substantial inhibitory effects of certain solubilizing agents on OCTs and PEPTs should be considered if they are to be used in dosage forms for new chemical entities and registered drugs to avoid misinterpretation of pharmacokinetic data and undesired drug interactions.

Expression, regulation and function of intestinal drug transporters: an update.

Although oral drug administration is currently the favorable route of administration, intestinal drug absorption is challenged by several highly variable and poorly predictable processes such as gastrointestinal motility, intestinal drug solubility and intestinal metabolism. One further determinant identified and characterized during the last two decades is the intestinal drug transport that is mediated by several transmembrane proteins such as P-gp, BCRP, PEPT1 and OATP2B1. It is well-established that intestinal transporters can affect oral absorption of many drugs in a significant manner either by facilitating their cellular uptake or by pumping them back to gut lumen, which limits their oral bioavailability. Their functional relevance becomes even more apparent in cases of unwanted drug-drug interactions when concomitantly given drugs that cause transporter induction or inhibition, which in turn leads to increased or decreased drug exposure. The longitudinal expression of several intestinal transporters is not homogeneous along the human intestine, which may have functional implications on the preferable site of intestinal drug absorption. Besides the knowledge about the expression of pharmacologically relevant transporters in human intestinal tissue, their exact localization on the apical or basolateral membrane of enterocytes is also of interest but in several cases debatable. Finally, there is obviously a coordinative interplay of intestinal transporters (apical-basolateral), intestinal enzymes and transporters as well as intestinal and hepatic transporters. This review aims to give an updated overview about the expression, localization, regulation and function of clinically relevant transporter proteins in the human intestine.

Expression of Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptide 1A2 in Red Blood Cells and Its Potential Impact on Antimalarial Therapy.

Important antimalarial drugs, including quinolines, act against blood schizonts by interfering with hemoglobin metabolism. To reach their site of action, these compounds have to cross the plasma membrane of red blood cells (RBCs). Organic cation transporters (OCTs) and organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs) are important uptake transporters and interesting candidates for local drug transport. We therefore studied their interaction with antimalarial compounds (quinine, chloroquine, mefloquine, pyrimethamine, artemisinin, and artesunate) and characterized the expression of OATP1A2 and OATP2B1 in RBCs. Competition assays using transporter-overexpressing Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCKII) cells and the model substrate estrone-3-sulfate identified quinine and chloroquine as potent inhibitors of OATP1A2 function (IC50 quinine: 0.7 ± 1.2 µM; chloroquine: 1.0 ± 1.5 µM), but no or only moderate effects were observed for OATP2B1. Subsequently, quinine was identified as a substrate of OATP1A2 (Km 23.4 µM). The OATP1A2-mediated uptake was sensitive to the OATP1A2-specific inhibitor naringin. Both OATPs were expressed in human RBCs, and ex vivo transport studies demonstrated naringin-sensitive accumulation of quinine in these cells (60 pmol versus 38 pmol/5 × 10(5) RBCs). Additional transport studies using OCT1-3 and organic cation transporter novel type 1 (OCTN1) indicated only significant quinine uptake by OCT1, which was not detected in RBCs. In conclusion, our data demonstrate expression of OATP2B1 and OATP1A2 in RBCs as well as OATP1A2-mediated uptake of quinine. Therefore, modulation of OATP1A2 function may affect quinine uptake into erythrocytes.

Pharmacokinetics and Pulmonary Distribution of Clarithromycin and Rifampicin after Concomitant and Consecutive Administration in Foals.

Drug interactions often result from multiple pharmacokinetic changes, such as after rifampicin (RIF) and clarithromycin (CLA) in the treatment of abscessing lung diseases. Comedication of RIF may interact with CLA disposition by either induction of presystemic elimination processes and/or inhibition of uptake mechanisms because it regulates gene transcription and modulates function of various CYP enzymes, multidrug efflux and uptake transporters for which CLA is a substrate. To distinguish the transcriptional changes from the modulating interaction components upon CLA absorption and pulmonary distribution, we initiated a repeated-dose study in 12 healthy foals with CLA (7.5 mg/kg, p.o., b.i.d.) in comedication with RIF (10 mg/kg, p.o., b.i.d.) given either concomitantly with CLA or consecutively 4 h after CLA. Affinity of CLA to human P-gp, MRP2, and MRP3 and to OCT1, OCT3, and PEPT1 was measured using Sf9-derived inside-out membrane vesicles and transfected HEK293 cells, respectively. ABCB1 (P-gp) induction by RIF and affinity of CLA to equine P-gp were studied using primary equine hepatocytes. Absolute bioavailability of CLA was reduced from ∼40% to below 5% after comedication of RIF in both schedules of administration, and Tmax occurred ∼2-3 h earlier. The loss of bioavailability was not associated with increased 14-hydroxyclarithromycin (14-OH-CLA) exposure. After consecutive dosing, absolute bioavailability and pulmonary penetration of CLA increased ∼2-fold compared to concomitant use. In vitro, CLA showed affinity to human and equine P-gp. Expression of ABCB1 mRNA was upregulated by RIF in 7 of 8 duodenal biopsy specimens and in primary equine hepatocytes. In conclusion, the major undesired influence of RIF on oral absorption and pulmonary distribution of CLA is associated with induction of intestinal P-gp. Consecutive administration to avoid competition with its intestinal uptake transport results in significantly, although not clinically relevant, improved systemic exposure.

The Nonmetabolized ß-Blocker Nadolol Is a Substrate of OCT1, OCT2, MATE1, MATE2-K, and P-Glycoprotein, but Not of OATP1B1 and OATP1B3.

Nadolol is a nonmetabolized ß-adrenoceptor antagonist and is a substrate of OATP1A2, but not of OATP2B1. However, other drug transporters involved in translocation of nadolol have not been characterized in detail. We therefore investigated nadolol as a potential substrate of the hepatic uptake transporters OATP1B1, OATP1B3, and OCT1 and of the renal transporters OCT2, MATE1, and MATE2-K expressed in HEK cells. Moreover, the importance of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) for nadolol transport was studied using double transfected MDCK-OCT1-P-gp cells. Nadolol was not transported by OATP1B1 and OATP1B3. In contrast, a significantly higher nadolol accumulation (at 1 and 10 µM) was found in OCT1, OCT2, MATE1, and MATE2-K cells compared to control cells (P < 0.01). Km values for OCT2-, MATE1-, and MATE2-K-mediated nadolol uptake were 122, 531, and 372 µM, respectively. Cimetidine (100 µM, P < 0.01) and trimethoprim (100 µM, P < 0.001) significantly inhibited OCT1-, OCT2-, MATE1-, and MATE2-K-mediated nadolol transport. The P-gp inhibitor zosuquidar significantly reduced basal to apical nadolol transport in monolayers of MDCK-OCT1-P-gp cells. In summary, nadolol is a substrate of the cation transporters OCT1, OCT2, MATE1, MATE2-K, and of P-gp. These data will aid future in vivo studies on potential transporter-mediated drug-drug or drug-food interactions with involvement of nadolol.

Metabolic activation and analgesic effect of flupirtine in healthy subjects, influence of the polymorphic NAT2, UGT1A1 and GSTP1.

AIMS: The rare association of flupirtine with liver injury is most likely caused by reactive quinone diimines and their oxidative formation may be influenced by the activities of N-acetyltransferases (NAT) that conjugate the less toxic metabolite D13223, and by glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) and glutathione S-transferases (GST) that generate stable terminal glucuronides and mercapturic acid derivatives, respectively. The influence of genetic polymorphisms of NAT2, UGT1A1 and GSTP1 on generation of the terminal mercapturic acid derivatives and analgesic effects was evaluated to identify potential genetic risk factors for hepatotoxicity of flupirtine. METHODS: Metabolic disposition of flupirtine was measured after intravenous administration (100 mg), after swallowing an immediate-release (IR) tablet (100 mg) and after repeated administration of modified release (MR) tablets (400 mg once daily 8 days) in 36 selected healthy subjects. Analgesic effects were measured using pain models (delayed onset of muscle soreness, electric pain). RESULTS: Flupirtine IR was rapidly but incompletely absorbed (∼ 72%). Repeated administration of flupirtine MR showed lower bioavailability (∼ 60%). Approximately 12% of bioavailable flupirtine IR and 8% of bioavailable flupiritine MR was eliminated as mercapturic acid derivatives into the urine independent of the UGT1A1, NAT2 and GSTP1 genotype. Carriers of variant GSTP1 alleles showed lower bioavailability but increased intestinal secretion of flupirtine and increased efficiency in experimental pain. Flupirtine was not a substrate for ABCB1 and ABCC2. CONCLUSIONS: Formation of mercapturic acid derivatives is a major elimination route for flupirtine in man. However, the theoretically toxic pathway is not influenced by the frequent polymorphisms of UGT1A1, NAT2 and GSTP1.

Expression of drug transporters and drug metabolizing enzymes in the bladder urothelium in man and affinity of the bladder spasmolytic trospium chloride to transporters likely involved in its pharmacokinetics.

The cationic, water-soluble quaternary trospium chloride (TC) is incompletely absorbed from the gut and undergoes wide distribution but does not pass the blood-brain barrier. It is secreted by the kidneys, liver, and intestine. To evaluate potential transport mechanisms for TC, we measured affinity of the drug to the human uptake and efflux transporters known to be of pharmacokinetic relevance. Affinity of TC to the uptake transporters OATP1A2, -1B1, -1B3, -2B1, OCT1, -2, -3, OCTN2, NTCP, and ASBT and the efflux carriers P-gp, MRP2 and MRP3 transfected in HEK293 and MDCK2 cells was measured. To identify relevant pharmacokinetic mechanisms in the bladder urothelium, mRNA expression of multidrug transporters, drug metabolizing enzymes, and nuclear receptors, and the uptake of TC into primary human bladder urothelium (HBU) cells were measured. TC was shown to be a substrate of OATP1A2 (Km = 6.9 ± 1.3 µmol/L; Vmax = 41.6 ± 1.8 pmol/mg·min), OCT1 (Km = 106 ± 16 µmol/L; Vmax = 269 ± 18 pmol/mg·min), and P-gp (Km = 34.9 ± 7.5 µmol/L; Vmax = 105 ± 9.1 pmol/mg·min, lipovesicle assay). The genetic OATP1A2 variants *2 and *3 were loss-of-function transporters for TC. The mRNA expression analysis identified the following transporter proteins in the human urothelium: ABCB1 (P-gp), ABCC1-5 (MRP1-5), ABCG2 (BCRP), SLCO2B1 (OATP2B1), SLCO4A1 (OATP4A1), SLC22A1 (OCT1), SLC22A3 (OCT3), SLC22A4 (OCTN1), SLC22A5 (OCTN2), and SLC47A1 (MATE1). Immuno-reactive P-gp and OATP1A2 were localized to the apical cell layers. Drug metabolizing enzymes CYP3A5, -2B6, -2B7 -2E1, SULT1A1-4, UGT1A1-10, and UGT2B15, and nuclear receptors NR1H3 and NR1H4 were also expressed on mRNA level. TC was taken up into HBU cells (Km = 18.5 ± 4.8 µmol/L; Vmax = 106 ± 11.3 pmol/mg·min) by mechanisms that could be synergistically inhibited by naringin (IC50 = 10.8 (8.4; 13.8) µmol/L) and verapamil (IC50 = 4.6 (2.8; 7.5) µmol/L), inhibitors of OATP1A2 and OCT1, respectively. Affinity of TC to OCT1 and P-glycoprotein may be the reason for incomplete oral absorption, wide distribution into liver and kidneys, and substantial intestinal and renal secretions. Absence of brain distribution may result from affinity to P-gp and a low affinity to OATP1A2. The human urothelium expresses many drug transporters and drug metabolizing enzymes that may interact with TC and other drugs eliminated into the urine.

OATP1B3 is expressed in pancreatic ß-islet cells and enhances the insulinotropic effect of the sulfonylurea derivative glibenclamide.

Organic anion transporting polypeptide OATP1B3 is a membrane-bound drug transporter that facilitates cellular entry of a variety of substrates. Most of the previous studies focused on its hepatic expression and function in hepatic drug elimination. In this study, we report expression of OATP1B3 in human pancreatic tissue, with the abundance of the transporter localized in the islets of Langerhans. Transport studies using OATP1B3-overexpressing MDCKII cells revealed significant inhibition of the cellular uptake of the known substrate cholecystokinin-8 in the presence of the insulinotropic antidiabetes compounds tolbutamide, glibenclamide, glimepiride, and nateglinide and identified glibenclamide as a novel substrate of OATP1B3. Sulfonylurea derivatives exert their insulinotropic effect by binding to the SUR1 subunit of the KATP channels inducing insulin secretion in ß-cells. Here, we show that transient overexpression of human OATP1B3 in a murine ß-cell line (MIN6)-which exhibits glucose and glibenclamide-sensitive insulin secretion-significantly enhances the insulinotropic effect of glibenclamide without affecting glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Taken together, our data provide evidence that the drug transporter OATP1B3 functions as a determinant of the insulinotropic effect of glibenclamide on the tissue level. Changes in transport activity based on drug-drug interactions or genetic variability may therefore influence glibenclamide efficacy.

Characterization of the intestinal and hepatic uptake/efflux transport of the magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent gadolinium-ethoxylbenzyl-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of the study were to measure the pharmacokinetics and liver enhancement of gadoxetate (gadolinium-ethoxylbenzyl-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid [Gd-EOB-DTPA], Eovist, Primovist) after oral and intravenous administration in wild-type and (multidrug resistance-associated protein 2) Mrp2-deficient rats and to evaluate the in vitro transport of the contrast agent via intestinal and hepatic transporter proteins. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Gadolinium-ethoxylbenzyl-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging and pharmacokinetics of Gd-EOB-DTPA after intravenous and oral administration were evaluated in wild-type and Mrp2-deficient rats using T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging and a validated liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method, respectively. Cellular uptake of Gd-EOB-DTPA was measured in stably transfected human embrionic kidney 293-cells expressing oragnic anion-transporting polypeptide 1A2 or organic cation transporter 3 and Madin Darby canine kidney 2-cells expressing apical sodium dependent bile acid transporter. The affinity to MRP2 and multidrug resistance-associated protein 3 was measured using inside-out vesicles. RESULTS: In vitro, Gd-EOB-DTPA was demonstrated to be a substrate for OATP1A2 (mean [SD] of the Michaelis-Menten constant [K(m)], 1.0 [0.4] mmol/L; mean [SD] of the maximal uptake rate [V(max)], 101.3 [21.1] pmol/mg per minute), MRP2 (K(m), 1.0 [0.5] mmol/L; V(max), 86.8 [31.1] pmol/mg per minute), and multidrug resistance-associated protein 3 (K(m), 1.8 [0.3] mmol/L; V(max), 116 [15.9] pmol/mg per minute) but not for the apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter and organic cation transporter 3. After the oral administration to the wild-type animals, Gd-EOB-DTPA was considerably absorbed from the small intestine (bioavailability, approximately 17%) and predominately eliminated via feces after intravenous dosing (approximately 96%). In the Mrp2-deficient rats, oral bioavailability increased to approximately 21% and Gd-EOB-DTPA was exclusively excreted into urine. Magnetic resonance enhancement of the liver was significantly prolonged in the Mrp2-deficient rats compared with the wild-type rats (mean [SD] area under the curve0-90, 36.4 [8.5] vs 14.8 [10.3] arbitary units per minute; P = 0.003; time to maximum plasma concentration, 48.6 [23.8] vs 6.0 [3.1] minutes; P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The nonmetabolized Gd-EOB-DTPA may have some potentials to be used as a probe-contrast agent to evaluate transporter-mediated mechanisms along the enterohepatic absorption route for drugs by functional visualization in vivo.

Steroid hormones specifically modify the activity of organic anion transporting polypeptides.

Previously, the steroid hormone progesterone has been demonstrated to stimulate OATP2B1-mediated transport of estrone-3-sulphate (E(1)S), dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) and pregnenolone sulphate (PS), which may influence the uptake of precursor molecules for steroid hormone synthesis. However, it is unclear whether OATP2B1 drug substrates like atorvastatin or glibenclamide are also affected by this phenomenon. In addition, it has not been studied so far if this stimulatory effect is specific for OATP2B1. To address these questions, we examined the influence of progesterone on OATP2B1-mediated atorvastatin and glibenclamide uptake and studied the impact of steroid hormones on the transport activity of OATP1A2, OATP1B1 and OATP1B3. Comparison of the substrate spectrum of the investigated OATPs revealed that DHEAS and atorvastatin are substrates of all transporters, while E(1)S was only significantly transported by OATP1A2, OATP2B1 and OATP1B1. Glibenclamide uptake was limited to OATP1A2, OATP1B1 and OATP2'B1. Subsequent interaction studies indicated that progesterone only increases OATP2B1-mediated E(1)S and DHEAS transport, whereas uptake of BSP, atorvastatin and glibenclamide was either inhibited or not affected. Moreover, the steroid hormone effect was specific for OATP2B1; neither OATP1B1, OATP1B3 nor OATP1A2 function was stimulated in the presence of progesterone. Similar to progesterone, the glucocorticoide dexamethasone stimulated OATP2B1-mediated transport of E(1)S and DHEAS (EC(50) for E(1)S: 10.2 ± 5.6 µM and 17.9 ± 15.4 µM for DHEAS). In conclusion, our data demonstrate that among the tested compounds the stimulatory effect of progesterone is specific for OATP2B1 and restricted to sulphated steroids like E(1)S and DHEAS while the OATP-mediated drug transport is not enhanced.

Pharmaceutical excipients influence the function of human uptake transporting proteins.

Although pharmaceutical excipients are supposed to be pharmacologically inactive, solubilizing agents like Cremophor EL have been shown to interact with cytochrome P450 (CYP)-dependent drug metabolism as well as efflux transporters such as P-glycoprotein (ABCB1) and multidrug resistance associated protein 2 (ABCC2). However, knowledge about their influence on the function of uptake transporters important in drug disposition is very limited. In this study we investigated the in vitro influence of polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG), hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HPCD), Solutol HS 15 (SOL), and Cremophor EL (CrEL) on the organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATP) 1A2, OATP2B1, OATP1B1, and OATP1B3 and the Na(+)/taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP). In stably transfected human embryonic kidney cells we analyzed the competition of the excipients with the uptake of bromosulfophthalein in OATP1B1, OATP1B3, OATP2B1, and NTCP, estrone-3-sulfate (E(3)S) in OATP1A2, OATP1B1, and OATP2B1, estradiol-17ß-glucuronide in OATP1B3, and taurocholate (TA) in OATP1A2 and NTCP cells. SOL and CrEL were the most potent inhibitors of all transporters with the strongest effect on OATP1A2, OATP1B3, and OATP2B1 (IC(50) < 0.01%). HPCD also strongly inhibited all transport proteins but only for substrates containing a sterane-backbone. Finally, PEG seems to be a selective and potent modulator of OATP1A2 with IC(50) values of 0.05% (TA) and 0.14% (E(3)S). In conclusion, frequently used solubilizing agents were shown to interact substantially with intestinal and hepatic uptake transporters which should be considered in drug development. However, the clinical relevance of these findings needs to be evaluated in further in vivo studies.