PHARMACOKINETICS OF RECTALLY AND ORALLY ADMINISTERED LEVOFLOXACIN IN ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS).

Appropriate and effective antibiotic use is a critical component of veterinary medicine, but there are variations across species regarding dosage and administration of these drugs. Oral or rectal routes of administration are typically used in elephants, but not all medications can achieve adequate concentrations rectally. The fluoroquinolone antimicrobials are used in elephants because of their favorable antimicrobial spectrum and pharmacokinetics compared with other oral agents. They are commonly used as part of multiple antibiotic regimens for the treatment of tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis). The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetic profile of levofloxacin after oral and rectal administration in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Dosages of 5 mg/kg orally and 15 mg/kg rectally were evaluated in 13 Asian elephants. Blood was collected at various time points from 0 to 72 h for pharmacokinetic analysis. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined and reached concentrations above minimum inhibitory concentrations of various bacterial organisms via both routes. A pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic assessment was used to estimate appropriate minimal inhibitory concentrations for bacteria that could be potentially treated with this antimicrobial. Based on these findings, levofloxacin may be a consideration for administration orally (5 mg/kg) and rectally (15 mg/kg) in Asian elephants. Antimicrobial stewardship principles, culture and susceptibility of suspected pathogens, and blood level monitoring should be used to tailor administration of levofloxacin in this species.

REVIEW OF CANINE DISTEMPER VACCINATION USE AND SAFETY IN NORTH AMERICAN CAPTIVE LARGE FELIDS (PANTHERA SPP.) FROM 2000 TO 2017.

Data on canine distemper virus (CDV) vaccination were collected on 812 large felids (351 tigers, Panthera tigris; 220 lions, Panthera leo; 143 snow leopards, Panthera uncia; 50 leopards, Panthera pardus; and 48 jaguars, Panthera onca) from 48 institutions to assess vaccine use and safety. The documented individual vaccination events with multiple products numbered 2,846. Canarypox-vectored CDV vaccines were the most commonly used vaccines (96.3% of all vaccinations) and the Purevax® Ferret Distemper (PFD) vaccine was the most commonly used canarypox-vectored vaccine (91.0% of all vaccinations). Modified live virus (MLV) CDV vaccines were used for 3.7% of all vaccinations, and only in tigers, lions, and snow leopards. Adverse effects were reported after 0.5% (13 of 2,740) of the canarypox-vectored vaccinations and after 2.9% (3 of 104) of the MLV CDV vaccinations. This low complication rate suggests large felids may not be as sensitive to adverse effects of MLV CDV vaccines as other exotic carnivores. Serological data were available from 159 individuals (69 tigers, 31 lions, 31 snow leopards, 22 jaguars, and 6 Amur leopards, Panthera pardus orientalis) vaccinated with the PFD vaccine, and 66.0% of vaccinates seroconverted (defined as acquiring a titer ≥1: 24) at some point postvaccination: 24.3% after one vaccination, 55.8% after two vaccinations, 54.3% after three vaccinations, and 79.2% after four or more vaccinations. Among animals exhibiting seroconversion after the initial PFD vaccinations, 88.9% still had titers ≥12 mo and ≥24 mo after the last vaccination, and 87.5% had titers ≥1: 24 at ≥36 mo after the last vaccination. The study was unable to assess fully the safety of vaccination with either canarypox-vectored or MLV CDV vaccines during gestation because of the small number of animals vaccinated while pregnant (n = 6, all vaccinated with PFD).

LIP-TO-LID TRANSPOSITION AND HUSBANDRY MANAGEMENT FOR SEVERE BILATERAL EYELID COLOBOMA IN THREE SNOW LEOPARDS (PANTHERA UNCIA).

Three sibling snow leopard (Panthera uncia) cubs were evaluated shortly after birth and found to have bilateral eyelid colobomas involving >50% of the upper central and lateral lid margins. The cubs also had iris to cornea persistent pupillary membranes and developed varying degrees of keratitis caused by trichiasis and exposure. No fundic abnormalities were noted. Given the severity of the defects an extensive surgical correction was required. Prior to surgical correction, the cubs were separated from the dam daily and a human-animal socialization plan was enacted to prepare the cubs for the intensive postoperative care that would be required. Bilateral lip commissure to eyelid transposition surgeries were performed on one cub at a time at 2 wk intervals starting at 3 mo of age. Postoperative care was labor and time intensive and each cub was maintained at the zoo's veterinary hospital for 11-21 days with daily supervised visits with the cub's siblings. All cubs were successfully reintroduced together and with the dam at the end of each hospitalization. The surgical procedure yielded fully functional eyelids and an excellent cosmetic appearance in all three cubs. The planned consistent human interaction with the cubs before and during the postoperative period made the procedure and its intensive aftercare possible and was crucial to the successful outcome of the surgeries.

PHARMACOKINETICS OF CEFTIOFUR CRYSTALLINE FREE ACID, A LONG-ACTING CEPHALOSPORIN, IN AMERICAN FLAMINGOS (PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER).

Antibiotic usage is a vital component of veterinary medicine but the unique anatomy of some species can make administration difficult. The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetic parameters of ceftiofur crystalline free acid (CCFA), a long-acting cephalosporin antibiotic, after parenteral administration in American flamingos ( Phoenicopterus ruber ). A dose of 10 mg/kg of CCFA was administered intramuscularly to 11 birds and blood was collected at various time points from 0 to 192 hr. Pharmacokinetic parameters for ceftiofur equivalents were determined and reached levels above minimum inhibitory concentrations of various bacterial organisms in other avian species through 96 hr in 9/11 birds. Based on these findings and comparison to other avian studies, ceftiofur crystalline free acid appears to be a long-acting antibiotic option for American flamingos. Administration of this antibiotic should be utilized in conjunction with culture and sensitivity of suspected pathogens.

Pharmacokinetics of tramadol and its primary metabolite O-desmethyltramadol in African penguins (Spheniscus demersus).

Analgesia is an important part of veterinary medicine, but until recently there have been limited studies on analgesic drugs in avian species. Tramadol represents an orally administered opioid drug that has shown analgesic potential in numerous species, including mammals, birds, and reptiles. The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetic parameters of tramadol and its primary metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol (M1), after oral administration of tramadol hydrochloride (HCl) in African penguins (Spheniscus demersus). A dose of 10 mg/kg of tramadol HCl was administered orally to 15 birds, and blood was collected at various time points from 0 to 36 hr. Tramadol and M1 concentrations were determined and were consistent with therapeutic concentrations in humans through 12 hr in 9/15 birds for tramadol and 36 hr in 14/15 birds for M1. Based on these findings and a comparison with other avian studies, an oral dose of 10 mg/kg of tramadol once daily appears to be a promising analgesic option for African penguins.

Vaccination of llamas, Llama glama, with an experimental killed encephalomyocarditis virus vaccine.

Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) is a pandemic virus that has caused mortality in numerous captive wildlife species worldwide. An experimental killed vaccine was created from two EMCV isolates associated with zoo animal mortality in the southern United States. The vaccine was tested for safety and efficacy in eleven llamas (Llama glama). All animals received an initial vaccination and a second booster vaccination 4 wk later. Serum antibody responses were monitored at initial vaccination and at 4 wks, 8 wk, 6 mo, and 12 mo postvaccination. Eight of the 11 llamas vaccinated experienced at least a 4-fold increase in serum antibody titers to EMCV. Antibody titers of those eight animals remained elevated above prevaccination levels when measured at 12 mo. The experimental killed EMCV vaccine tested may be a useful tool to prevent EMCV infection in llamas when given in 2 doses 4 wk apart, and then revaccinated or with antibody levels monitored annually thereafter.

Suspected seminal vesiculitis in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).

A 32-year-old male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) underwent routine transrectal stimulation for semen collection as part of an artificial insemination program. The procedure consisted of a preinsemination semen collection followed by two consecutive days of semen collections for artificial insemination. The second day's sample contained large numbers of inflammatory cells, intracellular bacteria, and phagocytized sperm. Semen was submitted for culture and sensitivity. Culture revealed Acinetobacter lwoffii, Staphylococcus intermedius, Kocuria roseus, and an unidentified gram-positive organism. Empirical antibiotic therapy with trimethoprim sulfa was initiated and then changed to enrofloxacin based on sensitivity panel results for a total of 28 days of treatment. Diagnostic semen collections were performed during treatment and 2 wk posttreatment to determine the success of therapy. Posttreatment collections revealed resolution of the inflammation. The origin of the infection was suspected to be the seminal vesicles.