Selected Acute Safety Events Following the Use of Nirmatrelvir/Ritonavir or Molnupiravir for COVID-19: A Nationwide Cohort Study in South Korea.

There had been concerns about the acute complications during or shortly after coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (NMVr) and molnupiravir (MOL). This study aimed to compare the risks of selected acute safety events in patients treated with or without NMVr or MOL using the COVID-19 oral treatment safety assessment data, constructed through the linkage of nationwide databases: National COVID-19 registry, Real-time Prescription Surveillance, and National Health Insurance data. We identified all adults diagnosed with COVID-19 between January and November 2022, and then constructed two cohorts by matching up to four patients without antiviral treatment records to NMVr or MOL users using propensity score matching. Outcomes of interest were incident-selected cardiac (i.e., atrial fibrillation, other arrhythmia, bradycardia), neurological (i.e., seizure, neuropathy, encephalomyelitis), and miscellaneous (i.e., acute pancreatitis, acute liver injury, dysgeusia) events. A total of 739,935 NMVr users were matched with 2,951,690 comparators and 150,431 MOL users with 759,521 comparators. NMVr users were at lower risk for developing selected cardiac events (hazard ratio 0.74 [95% CI 0.65-0.87] for atrial fibrillation, 0.81 [0.65-0.99] for other arrhythmia, and 0.82 [0.70-0.96] for bradycardia) and dysgeusia (0.58 [0.45-0.74]). For MOL users, the risk was lower for atrial fibrillation (0.72 [0.53-0.96]) and dysgeusia (0.34 [0.18-0.65]). Overall, there were no increased risks of acute complications during and shortly after treatment with oral COVID-19 antivirals. Rather, the findings underscore their effectiveness in attenuating the risk of potential acute sequelae of COVID-19.

Characteristics of sub-micron aerosols in the Yellow Sea and its environmental implications.

The Yellow Sea, characterized by an influx of both natural marine and anthropogenic pollutants, coupled with favorable photochemical conditions, serve as key sites for potential interactions between atmospheric gases and aerosols. A recent air monitoring campaign in the Yellow Sea revealed aerosol contributions from four sources, with the highest mass concentrations and dominance of NO3- (38.1 ± 0.37 %) during winds from China. Indications of potential secondary aerosol formation were observed through the presence of hydrolysis and oxidation products of nitrate and volatile organic compounds. Correlations between time series distributions of biomass burning organic aerosols and particle number counts (Dp 100-500 nm, R2 = 0.94) further suggest potential size growth through adsorption and scavenging processes. The results from this study provide observational evidence of a shift in atmospheric compositions from sulfate to nitrate, leading to an increased atmospheric nitrogen deposition in the Yellow Sea.

Antimicrobial activity of cell-free supernatant derived from Ligilactobacillus animalis SWLA-1 in a novel ex vivo canine corneal infection model.

Introduction: Canine bacterial keratitis is a corneal infection that causes various symptoms, including visual impairment, and necessitates eye removal in severe cases. Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is a pathogen that causes significant bacterial keratitis in canine patients. Moreover, multi-drug resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (MDRSP) has been reported in both humans and animals. Regarding treatment failure against multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogens with classic antibiotics, antimicrobial compounds derived from probiotics have been suggested as an alternative approach. Methods: Ligilactobacillus animalis SWLA-1 strain and its cell-free supernatant (CFS) have previously demonstrated potent antimicrobial activity against various MDR pathogenic bacteria. Based on this finding, we evaluated the anti-staphylococcal activity of CFS derived from Ligilactobacillus animalis SWLA-1 against MDRSP in a newly established ex vivo canine corneal infection model using fresh canine corneoscleral rims. Additionally, an in vitro cytotoxicity test using human keratocytes was performed. Results and Discussion: CFS significantly inhibited the growth of MDRSP in the novel ex vivo model and did not exhibit any significant toxicity against keratocytes in vitro. Based on these results, the antimicrobial compounds in CFS show potential as a novel approach for MDR staphylococcal keratitis treatment.

Antiviral activity of adenoviral vector expressing human interferon lambda-4 against influenza virus.

Interferon lambda (IFNλ), classified as a type III IFN, is a representative cytokine that plays an important role in innate immunity along with type I IFN. IFNλ can elicit antiviral states by inducing peculiar sets of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). In this study, an adenoviral vector expression system with a tetracycline operator system was used to express human IFNλ4 in cells and mice. The formation of recombinant adenovirus (rAd-huIFNλ4) was confirmed using immunohistochemistry assays and transmission electron microscopy. Its purity was verified by quantifying host cell DNA and host cell proteins, as well as by confirming the absence of the replication-competent adenovirus. The transduction of rAd-huIFNλ4 induced ISGs and inhibited four subtypes of the influenza virus in both mouse-derived (LA-4) and human-derived cells (A549). The antiviral state was confirmed in BALB/c mice following intranasal inoculation with 109 PFU of rAd-huIFNλ4, which led to the inhibition of four subtypes of the influenza virus in mouse lungs, with reduced inflammatory lesions. These results imply that human IFNλ4 could induce antiviral status by modulating ISG expression in mice.

Effect of Paxlovid in COVID-19 treatment during the periods of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.5 and BN.1 subvariant dominance in the Republic of Korea: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to assess the efficacy of nirmatrelvir/ritonavir treatment in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), particularly those aged 60 years and older. Using real-world data, the period during which the BN.1 Omicron variant was dominant was compared to the period dominated by the BA.5 variant. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, data were collected regarding 2,665,281 patients infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 between July 24, 2022, and March 31, 2023. Propensity score matching was utilized to match patients who received nirmatrelvir/ ritonavir in a 1:4 ratio between BN.1 and BA.5 variant groups. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was employed to assess the effects of nirmatrelvir/ritonavir within these groups. RESULTS: Compared to the prior period, the efficacy of nirmatrelvir/ritonavir did not significantly differ during the interval of Omicron BN.1 variant dominance in the Republic of Korea. Among patients treated with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir, a significantly lower risk of mortality was observed in the BN.1 group (odds ratio [OR], 0.698; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.557-0.875) compared to the BA.5 group. However, this treatment did not significantly reduce the risk of severe or critical illness, including death, for those in the BN.1 group (OR, 0.856; 95% CI, 0.728-1.007). CONCLUSION: Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir has maintained its effectiveness against COVID-19, even with the emergence of the BN.1 Omicron subvariant. Consequently, we strongly recommend the administration of nirmatrelvir/ritonavir to patients exhibiting COVID-19-related symptoms, irrespective of the dominant Omicron variant or their vaccination status, to mitigate disease severity and decrease the risk of mortality.

Mechanism Behind the Loss of Fast Charging Capability in Nickel-Rich Cathode Materials.

Fast charging technology for electric vehicles (EVs), offering rapid charging times similar to conventional vehicle refueling, holds promise but faces obstacles owing to kinetic issues within lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Specifically, the significance of cathode materials in fast charging has grown because Ni-rich cathodes are employed to enhance the energy density of LIBs. Herein, the mechanism behind the loss of fast charging capability of Ni-rich cathodes during extended cycling is investigated through a comparative analysis of Ni-rich cathodes with different microstructures. The results revealed that microcracks and the resultant cathode deterioration significantly compromised the fast charging capability over extended cycling. When thick rocksalt impurity phases form throughout the particles owing to electrolyte infiltration via microcracks, the limited kinetics of Li+ ions create electrochemically unreactive areas under high-current conditions, resulting in the loss of fast charging capability. Hence, preventing microcrack formation by tailoring microstructures is essential to ensure stability in fast charging capability. Understanding the relationship between microcracks and the loss of fast charging capability is essential for developing Ni-rich cathodes that facilitate stable fast charging upon extended cycling, thereby promoting widespread EV adoption.

A Hybrid Deep Learning Emotion Classification System Using Multimodal Data.

This paper proposes a hybrid deep learning emotion classification system (HDECS), a hybrid multimodal deep learning system designed for emotion classification in a specific national language. Emotion classification is important in diverse fields, including tailored corporate services, AI advancement, and more. Additionally, most sentiment classification techniques in speaking situations are based on a single modality: voice, conversational text, vital signs, etc. However, analyzing these data presents challenges because of the variations in vocal intonation, text structures, and the impact of external stimuli on physiological signals. Korean poses challenges in natural language processing, including subject omission and spacing issues. To overcome these challenges and enhance emotion classification performance, this paper presents a case study using Korean multimodal data. The case study model involves retraining two pretrained models, LSTM and CNN, until their predictions on the entire dataset reach an agreement rate exceeding 0.75. Predictions are used to generate emotional sentences appended to script data, which are further processed using BERT for final emotion prediction. The research result is evaluated by using categorical cross-entropy (CCE) to measure the difference between the model's predictions and actual labels, F1 score, and accuracy. According to the evaluation, the case model outperforms the existing KLUE/roBERTa model with improvements of 0.5 in CCE, 0.09 in accuracy, and 0.11 in F1 score. As a result, the HDECS is expected to perform well not only on Korean multimodal datasets but also on sentiment classification considering the speech characteristics of various languages and regions.

Effects of Poly-Si Grain Boundary on Retention Characteristics under Cross-Temperature Conditions in 3-D NAND Flash Memory.

Electrical characteristics with various program temperatures (TPGM) in three-dimensional (3-D) NAND flash memory are investigated. The cross-temperature conditions of the TPGM up to 120 °C and the read temperature (TREAD) at 30 °C are used to analyze the influence of grain boundaries (GB) on the bit line current (IBL) and threshold voltage (VT). The VT shift in the E-P-E pattern is successfully decomposed into the charge loss (ΔVT,CL) component and the poly-Si GB (ΔVT,GB) component. The extracted ΔVT,GB increases at higher TPGM due to the reduced GB potential barrier. Additionally, the ΔVT,GB is evaluated using the Technology Computer Aided Design (TCAD) simulation, depending on the GB position (XGB) and the bit line voltage (VBL).

Process Parameter Optimization for Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Fe-Si Alloy Considering Surface Morphology and Track Width of Single Scan Track.

A laser power bed fusion (L-PBF) manufacturing process was optimized by analyzing the surface morphology and track width w of single scan tracks (SSTs) on Fe-3.4wt.%Si. An SST was evaluated under process conditions of laser power P, scan speed V, and energy density E = P/V. The SST surface shape was mainly affected by E; desirable thin and regular tracks were obtained at E = 0.3 and 0.4 J/mm. An L-PBF process window was proposed considering the optimal w of SST, and the appropriate range of E for the alloy was identified to be 0.24 J/mm to 0.49 J/mm. w showed a strong relationship with E and V, and an analytic model was suggested. To verify the process window derived from the appropriate w of SST, cubic samples were manufactured with the estimated optimal process conditions. Most samples produced had a high density with a porosity of <1%, and the process window derived from SST w data had high reliability. This study presents a comprehensive approach to enhancing additive manufacturing for Fe-3.4Si alloy, offering valuable insights for achieving high-quality samples without the need for time-intensive procedures.

Effect of Noncircular Channel on Distribution of Threshold Voltage in 3D NAND Flash Memory.

The instability in threshold voltage (VTH) and charge distributions in noncircular cells of three-dimensional (3D) NAND flash memory are investigated. Using TCAD simulation, we aim to identify the main factors influencing the VTH of noncircular cells. The key focus is on the nonuniform trapped electron density in the charge trapping layer (CTL) caused by the change in electric field between the circular region and the spike region. There are less-trapped electron (LT) regions within the CTL of programmed noncircular cells, which significantly enhances current flow. Remarkably, more than 50% of the total current flows through these LT regions when the spike size reaches 15 nm. We also performed a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between charge distribution and VTH in two-spike cells with different heights (HSpike) and angles between spikes (θ). The results of this study demonstrate the potential to improve the reliability of next-generation 3D NAND flash memory.

Neurologic Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Transmitted among Dogs.

SARS-CoV-2 induces illness and death in humans by causing systemic infections. Evidence suggests that SARS-CoV-2 can induce brain pathology in humans and other hosts. In this study, we used a canine transmission model to examine histopathologic changes in the brains of dogs infected with SARS-CoV-2. We observed substantial brain pathology in SARS-CoV-2-infected dogs, particularly involving blood-brain barrier damage resembling small vessel disease, including changes in tight junction proteins, reduced laminin levels, and decreased pericyte coverage. Furthermore, we detected phosphorylated tau, a marker of neurodegenerative disease, indicating a potential link between SARS-CoV-2-associated small vessel disease and neurodegeneration. Our findings of degenerative changes in the dog brain during SARS-CoV-2 infection emphasize the potential for transmission to other hosts and induction of similar signs and symptoms. The dynamic brain changes in dogs highlight that even asymptomatic individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2 may develop neuropathologic changes in the brain.

Anti-Staphylococcal Activity of Ligilactobacillus animalis SWLA-1 and Its Supernatant against Multidrug-Resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in Novel Rat Model of Acute Osteomyelitis.

Osteomyelitis caused by staphylococcal infection is a serious complication of orthopedic surgery. Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is the main causative agent of osteomyelitis in veterinary medicine. Methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius (MRSP) has been reported in companion animals, especially dogs. Multidrug-resistant S. pseudintermedius is an emerging pathogen and has acquired antibiotic resistance against various commercial antimicrobial agents. New antimicrobial compounds are urgently needed to address antibiotic resistance, and the development of novel agents has become an international research hotspot in recent decades. Antimicrobial compounds derived from probiotics, such as bacteriocins, are promising alternatives to classical antibiotics. In this study, the antibacterial activities of Ligilactobacillus animalis SWLA-1 and its concentrated cell-free supernatant (CCFS) were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The CCFS of this bacterium showed no toxicity against osteoblast and myoblast cells in vitro, while significantly inhibiting the multidrug-resistant S. pseudintermedius KUVM1701GC strain in a newly established rat model. The CCFS significantly inhibited multidrug-resistant staphylococci both in vitro and in vivo. This suggests that CCFS derived from L. animalis SWLA-1 has potential as an alternative to classic antibiotics for staphylococcal infections in dogs.

Targeting Wnt/ß-catenin-mediated upregulation of oncogenic NLGN3 suppresses cancer stem cells in glioblastoma.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most malignant tumor in brain and is highly resistant to therapy. Clinical evidence suggests increased number of cancer stem cells (CSCs) may contribute to the failure of conventional therapies, but the mechanisms associated with acquisition of CSC properties in GBM are not fully understood. We found that DAB2IP suppresses CSC properties by targeting the synaptic proteins neuroligin 3 (NLGN3) in GBM. Furthermore, we showed that GBM-derived NLGN3 has an oncogenic function by inducing CSC properties within GBM. Moreover, elevated NLGN3 transcription mediated by Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway resulted in increased secretion of NLGN3 into the surrounding tumor microenvironment. Both condition media containing NLGN3 and recombinant NLGN3 transformed neighboring cells to CSCs, suggesting NLGN3 as a critical component inducing CSC properties. Furthermore, targeting NLGN3-bearing CSCs using upstream Wnt/ß-catenin inhibitors synergistically enhances the efficacy of conventional treatment. Hence, we unveiled the series of regulatory mechanisms for acquisition of CSC properties in GBM progression by Wnt/ß-catenin-mediated NLGN3. These results may provide a new targeting strategy to improve the therapeutic efficacy of GBM treatments.

Emissions from ships' activities in the anchorage zone: A potential source of sub-micron aerosols in port areas.

Busan Port is among the world's top ten most air-polluted ports, but the role of the anchorage zone as a significant contributor to pollution has not been studied. To assess the emission characteristics of sub-micron aerosols, a high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) was deployed in Busan, South Korea from September 10 to October 6, 2020. The concentration of all AMS-identified species and black carbon were highest when the winds came from the anchorage zone (11.9 µg·m-3) and lowest with winds from the open ocean (6.64 µg·m-3). The positive matrix factorization model identified one hydrocarbon-like organic aerosol (HOA) and two oxygenated organic aerosol (OOA) sources. HOAs were highest with winds from Busan Port, while oxidized OOAs were predominant with winds from the anchorage zone (less oxidized) and the open ocean (more oxidized). We calculated the emissions from the anchorage zone using ship activity data and compared them to the total emissions from Busan Port. Our results suggest that emissions from ship activities in the anchorage zone should be considered a significant source of pollution in the Busan Port area, especially given the substantial contributions of gaseous emissions (NOx: 8.78%; volatile organic compounds: 7.52%) and their oxidized moieties as secondary aerosols.

Mobile measurement of vehicle emission factors in a roadway tunnel: A concentration gradient approach.

Tunnels are the preferred experimental environments for estimating vehicle emission factors (EFs) under real-world driving conditions. In this study, online measurements of traffic-related air pollutants (including CO2, NOX, SO2, O3, particulate matter [PM], and volatile organic compounds [VOCs]) were conducted using a mobile laboratory in the Sujungsan Tunnel in Busan, Korea. Mobile measurements generated concentration profiles of the target exhaust emissions inside the tunnel. These data were used to produce a zonation of the tunnel, i.e., mixing and accumulation zones. There were differences between the CO2, SO2, and NOX profiles, and a starting point that was free from ambient air mixing effects could be set at 600 m from the tunnel entrance. The EFs of vehicle exhaust emissions were calculated using pollutant concentration gradients. The average EFs for CO2, NO, NO2, SO2, PM10, PM2.5, and ∑VOCs were 149,000, 380, 55, 29.2, 9.64, 4.33, and 16.7 mg km-1·veh-1, respectively. Among the VOC groups, alkanes contributed more than 70% of the VOC EF. Mobile measurement-derived EFs were validated using the conventional EFs from stationary measurements. The EF results from the mobile measurements matched those from the stationary measurements, while the absolute concentration differences between them implied complex aerodynamic movements of the target pollutants inside the tunnel. This study demonstrated the usefulness and advantages of applying mobile measurements in a tunnel environment and indicated the potential of the approach for observation-based policymaking.

Stability and inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 on food contact surfaces.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has infected more than 269 million people and killed more than 5.3 million people worldwide. Although fomite transmission of SARS-CoV-2 has been continuously reported, few studies have been conducted on food contact surfaces. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the viability of coronaviruses on food contact surfaces and to remove SARS-CoV-2 contaminated on food contact surfaces with disinfectants. At 20 °C, SARS-CoV-2 was inactivated within 48 h on all food contact surfaces. At 4 °C, it was inactivated at 48 h on kraft paper and 96 h on parchment paper, but it was viable up to 5 days in low-density polyethylene (LDPE). At -20 °C, SARS-CoV-2 did not decrease by even 1 log on all food contact surfaces until 5 days. Treatment with 70% ethanol or 1000 ppm sodium hypochlorite for 5 min was sufficient to completely remove SARS-CoV-2 from 6 food contact surfaces. Similarly, UV-C irradiation at 60 mJ/cm2 eliminated SARS-CoV-2 contaminated on food contact surfaces. Also, the wiping test showed that even wiping an area contaminated with SARS-CoV-2 with a cloth moistened with 70% ethanol or 1000 ppm sodium hypochlorite, it took 5 min to inactivate the virus. Our findings suggested that SARS-CoV-2 contaminated on food contact surfaces in local retail may be viable enough to be transported home. However, if the type and method of use of the disinfectant suggested in this study are followed, it is possible to sufficiently control the fomite transmission of SARS-CoV-2 through food contact surfaces at home.

Chemical characterization of sub-micron aerosols over the East Sea (Sea of Japan).

Studies of the land-sea-air interactions of aerosol are scarce considering their significant role in global environmental changes. Here, we investigated potential sources of sub-micron aerosols over the East Sea (Sea of Japan), which is strongly influenced by continental and marine aerosols. A high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) was used to measure the size-resolved chemical compositions of sub-micron aerosols during the period March 10-15, 2020. Concentrations of all AMS species, black carbon (BC), PM10 (particulate matter <10 µm) and PM2.5 (particulate matter <2.5 µm) were higher when cruising in industrialized coastal areas compared to the offshore region. A positive matrix factorization (PMF) model identified five distinct sources, i.e., hydrocarbon-like organic aerosol, semi-volatile and low-volatile oxygenated aerosols, methanesulfonic acid (MSA), and dimethyl sulfide (DMS; C2H6S) oxidation, which accounted for 5.98 %, 21.6 %, 28.3 %, 34.5 %, and 9.64 % of the total organic mass, respectively. The spatiotemporal variation of MSA, as well as the MSA to sulfate ratio (MSA:SO42-) over the East Sea, was determined for the first time. The mass concentrations of MSA displayed a similar time series distribution pattern to those of DMS. The time series distributions of the MSA:SO42- ratio displayed distinct differences, with higher ratios downwind of the ocean (0.216 ± 0.083 µg·m-3) than land (0.089 ± 0.030 µg·m-3). The growth of ultrafine particles (10-35 nm) was observed during two of the elevated MSA:SO42- ratio events, suggesting a potential role of MSA in new particle formation.

Genetic Analysis of Torque Teno Canis Virus Identified in Republic of Korea.

Torque teno canis virus (TTCaV) is an approximately 2.8 kb circular single-stranded DNA virus known to cause infections in dogs. However, its incidence in Republic of Korea remains unknown. In this study, 135 dog fecal samples were collected to determine TTCaV infection status in Republic of Korea. Based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis, 13 of 135 (9.6%) dogs tested positive for TTCaV. Three full-length genome sequences (GenBank IDs: MZ503910, MZ503911, and MZ503912) were obtained from the positive specimens. Phylogenetic tree construction and sequence identity, similarity plot, and recombination analyses were performed using these three full-length genomic sequences. Among the three full-length genomes, MZ503912 was determined to be a recombinant virus based on analysis with the reference TTCaV strains. This novel virus strain might have been generated by recombination between TTCaV strain KX827768 discovered in China and MZ503910 discovered in Republic of Korea. This is the first report to determine the incidence, genetic variation, and recombination of TTCaV in dogs in Republic of Korea. Further studies are needed to elucidate TTCaV pathogenesis in dogs.

Weight interpretation of artificial neural network model for analysis of rice (Oryza sativa L.) with near-infrared spectroscopy.

Prediction models for major nutrients of rice were built using near-infrared (NIR) spectral data based on the artificial neural network (ANN). Scientific interpretation of the weight values was proposed and performed to understand the wavenumbers contributing to the prediction of nutrients. NIR spectra were acquired from 110 rice samples. Carbohydrate and moisture contents were predicted with values for the determination coefficient, relative root mean square error, range error ratio, and residual prediction deviation of 0.98, 0.11 %, 44, and 7.3, and 0.97, 0.80 %, 27, and 5.8, respectively. The results agreed well with ones reported in the previous studies and acquired by the conventional partial least squares (PLS)-variable importance in projection method. This study demonstrates that the combination of NIR and ANN is a powerful and accurate tool to monitor nutrients of rice and scientific interpretation of weights can be performed to overcome black box nature of the ANN.

Molecular surveillance of equine parvovirus-hepatitis from oral, nasal, vaginal, and semen specimens collected from horses living in Korea.

Equine parvovirus-hepatitis (EqPV-H) is one of the etiological agents of Theiler's disease, causing fulminant hepatitis; however, its transmission route and pathogenesis remain unclear. In the present study, we aimed to determine EqPV-H shedding in oral/nasal/vaginal swabs or semen samples from horses living in Korea using nested polymerase chain reaction. We then used the data obtained to investigate various risk factors associated with EqPV-H including viral shedding, hepatopathological changes, and genetic diversity. Our data revealed occurrence of EqPV-H shedding in these animals (oral: 3/102 [2.9%]; nasal: 3/102 [2.9%]; semen: 1/9 [11.1%]) and identified that both age and country of foaling were significantly associated with EqPV-H shedding (p < .05). In addition, we noted that one of the newly isolated strains clustered separately from the other strains in the phylogenetic tree, revealing unique nucleotide and amino acid substitutions. This is a field surveillance study providing evidence of natural and venereal shedding of EqPV-H and describing its presence in both oral/nasal fluids and semen. This epidemiological and clinical analysis may help specify the clinicopathological features of EqPV-H and facilitate the development of novel disease prevention strategies.