A simple MATLAB toolbox for analyzing calcium imaging data in vitro and in vivo.

BACKGROUND: Fluorescence imaging of calcium dynamics in neuronal populations is powerful because it offers a way of relating the activity of individual cells to the broader population of nearby cells. The method's growth across neuroscience has particularly been driven by the introduction of sophisticated mathematical techniques related to motion correction, image registration, cell detection, spike estimation, and population characterization. However, for many researchers, making good use of these techniques has been difficult because they have been devised by different workers and impose differing - and sometimes stringent - technical requirements on those who seek to use them. NEW METHOD: We have built a simple toolbox of analysis routines that encompass the complete workflow for analyzing calcium imaging data. The workflow begins with preprocessing of data, includes motion correction and longitudinal image registration, detects active cells using constrained non-negative matrix factorization, and offers multiple options for estimating spike times and characterizing population activity. The routines can be navigated through a simple graphical user interface. Although written in MATLAB, a standalone version for researchers who do not have access to MATLAB is included. RESULTS: We have used the toolbox on two very different preparations: spontaneously active brain slices and microendoscopic imaging from deep structures in awake behaving mice. In both cases, the toolbox offered a seamless flow from raw data all the way through to prepared graphs. CONCLUSION: The field of calcium imaging has benefited from the development of numerous innovative mathematical techniques. Here we offer a simple toolbox that allows ordinary researchers to fully exploit these techniques.

Distinct subpopulations of ventral pallidal cholinergic projection neurons encode valence of olfactory stimuli.

To better understand the function of cholinergic projection neurons in the ventral pallidum (VP), we examined behavioral responses to appetitive (APP) and aversive (AV) odors that elicited approach or avoidance, respectively. Exposure to each odor increased cFos expression and calcium signaling in VP cholinergic neurons. Activity and Cre-dependent viral vectors selectively labeled VP cholinergic neurons that were activated and reactivated in response to either APP or AV odors, but not both, identifying two non-overlapping populations of VP cholinergic neurons differentially activated by the valence of olfactory stimuli. These two subpopulations showed differences in electrophysiological properties, morphology, and projections to the basolateral amygdala. Although VP neurons are engaged in both approach and avoidance behavioral responses, cholinergic signaling is only required for approach behavior. Thus, two distinct subpopulations of VP cholinergic neurons differentially encode valence of olfactory stimuli and play distinct roles in approach and avoidance behaviors.

Functionally refined encoding of threat memory by distinct populations of basal forebrain cholinergic projection neurons.

Neurons of the basal forebrain nucleus basalis and posterior substantia innominata (NBM/SIp) comprise the major source of cholinergic input to the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Using a genetically-encoded acetylcholine (ACh) sensor in mice, we demonstrate that BLA-projecting cholinergic neurons can "learn" the association between a naïve tone and a foot shock (training) and release ACh in the BLA in response to the conditioned tone 24h later (recall). In the NBM/SIp cholinergic neurons express the immediate early gene, Fos following both training and memory recall. Cholinergic neurons that express Fos following memory recall display increased intrinsic excitability. Chemogenetic silencing of these learning-activated cholinergic neurons prevents expression of the defensive behavior to the tone. In contrast, we show that NBM/SIp cholinergic neurons are not activated by an innately threatening stimulus (predator odor). Instead, VP/SIa cholinergic neurons are activated and contribute to defensive behaviors in response to predator odor, an innately threatening stimulus. Taken together, we find that distinct populations of cholinergic neurons are recruited to signal distinct aversive stimuli, demonstrating functionally refined organization of specific types of memory within the cholinergic basal forebrain of mice.

Functionally refined encoding of threat memory by distinct populations of basal forebrain cholinergic projection neurons.

Neurons of the basal forebrain nucleus basalis and posterior substantia innominata (NBM/SIp) comprise the major source of cholinergic input to the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Using a genetically encoded acetylcholine (ACh) sensor in mice, we demonstrate that BLA-projecting cholinergic neurons can 'learn' the association between a naive tone and a foot shock (training) and release ACh in the BLA in response to the conditioned tone 24 hr later (recall). In the NBM/SIp cholinergic neurons express the immediate early gene, Fos following both training and memory recall. Cholinergic neurons that express Fos following memory recall display increased intrinsic excitability. Chemogenetic silencing of these learning-activated cholinergic neurons prevents expression of the defensive behavior to the tone. In contrast, we show that NBM/SIp cholinergic neurons are not activated by an innately threatening stimulus (predator odor). Instead, VP/SIa cholinergic neurons are activated and contribute to defensive behaviors in response to predator odor, an innately threatening stimulus. Taken together, we find that distinct populations of cholinergic neurons are recruited to signal distinct aversive stimuli, demonstrating functionally refined organization of specific types of memory within the cholinergic basal forebrain of mice.

Distinct subpopulations of ventral pallidal cholinergic projection neurons encode valence of olfactory stimuli.

The ventral pallidum (VP) mediates motivated behaviors largely via the action of VP GABA and glutamatergic neurons. In addition to these neuronal subtypes, there is a population of cholinergic projection neurons in the VP, whose functional significance remains unclear. To understand the functional role of VP cholinergic neurons, we first examined behavioral responses to an appetitive (APP) odor that elicited approach, and an aversive (AV) odor that led to avoidance. To examine how VP cholinergic neurons were engaged in APP vs. AV responses, we used an immediate early gene marker and in-vivo fiber photometry, examining the activation profile of VP cholinergic neurons in response to each odor. Exposure to each odor led to an increase in the number of cFos counts and increased calcium signaling of VP cholinergic neurons. Activity and cre-dependent viral vectors were designed to label engaged VP cholinergic neurons in two distinct contexts: (1) exposure to the APP odor, (2) followed by subsequent exposure to the AV odor, and vice versa. These studies revealed two distinct, non-overlapping subpopulations of VP cholinergic neurons: one activated in response to the APP odor, and a second distinct population activated in response to the AV odor. These two subpopulations of VP cholinergic neurons are spatially intermingled within the VP, but show differences in electrophysiological properties, neuronal morphology, and projections to the basolateral amygdala. Although VP cholinergic neurons are engaged in behavioral responses to each odor, VP cholinergic signaling is only required for approach behavior. Indeed, inhibition of VP cholinergic neurons not only blocks approach to the APP odor, but reverses the behavior, leading to active avoidance. Our results highlight the functional heterogeneity of cholinergic projection neurons within the VP. These two subpopulations of VP cholinergic neurons differentially encode valence of olfactory stimuli and play unique roles in approach and avoidance behaviors.

Language trees with sampled ancestors support a hybrid model for the origin of Indo-European languages.

The origins of the Indo-European language family are hotly disputed. Bayesian phylogenetic analyses of core vocabulary have produced conflicting results, with some supporting a farming expansion out of Anatolia ~9000 years before present (yr B.P.), while others support a spread with horse-based pastoralism out of the Pontic-Caspian Steppe ~6000 yr B.P. Here we present an extensive database of Indo-European core vocabulary that eliminates past inconsistencies in cognate coding. Ancestry-enabled phylogenetic analysis of this dataset indicates that few ancient languages are direct ancestors of modern clades and produces a root age of ~8120 yr B.P. for the family. Although this date is not consistent with the Steppe hypothesis, it does not rule out an initial homeland south of the Caucasus, with a subsequent branch northward onto the steppe and then across Europe. We reconcile this hybrid hypothesis with recently published ancient DNA evidence from the steppe and the northern Fertile Crescent.

Basal forebrain cholinergic signalling: development, connectivity and roles in cognition.

Acetylcholine plays an essential role in fundamental aspects of cognition. Studies that have mapped the activity and functional connectivity of cholinergic neurons have shown that the axons of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons innervate the pallium with far more topographical and functional organization than was historically appreciated. Together with the results of studies using new probes that allow release of acetylcholine to be detected with high spatial and temporal resolution, these findings have implicated cholinergic networks in 'binding' diverse behaviours that contribute to cognition. Here, we review recent findings on the developmental origins, connectivity and function of cholinergic neurons, and explore the participation of cholinergic signalling in the encoding of cognition-related behaviours.

Arteriolar neuropathology in cerebral microvascular disease.

Cerebral microvascular disease (MVD) is an important cause of vascular cognitive impairment. MVD is heterogeneous in aetiology, ranging from universal ageing to the sporadic (hypertension, sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy [CAA] and chronic kidney disease) and the genetic (e.g., familial CAA, cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy [CADASIL] and cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy [CARASIL]). The brain parenchymal consequences of MVD predominantly consist of lacunar infarcts (lacunes), microinfarcts, white matter disease of ageing and microhaemorrhages. MVD is characterised by substantial arteriolar neuropathology involving ubiquitous vascular smooth muscle cell (SMC) abnormalities. Cerebral MVD is characterised by a wide variety of arteriolar injuries but only a limited number of parenchymal manifestations. We reason that the cerebral arteriole plays a dominant role in the pathogenesis of each type of MVD. Perturbations in signalling and function (i.e., changes in proliferation, apoptosis, phenotypic switch and migration of SMC) are prominent in the pathogenesis of cerebral MVD, making 'cerebral angiomyopathy' an appropriate term to describe the spectrum of pathologic abnormalities. The evidence suggests that the cerebral arteriole acts as both source and mediator of parenchymal injury in MVD.

An Evaluation of Peer-Rated Surgical Skill and its Relationship With Detrusor Muscle Sampling in Transurethral Resection of Bladder Tumor.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the reliability of peer-review of TURBT videos as a means to evaluate surgeon skill and its relationship to detrusor sampling. METHODS: Urologists from an academic health system submitted TURBT videos in 2019. Ten blinded peers evaluated each surgeon's performance using a 10-item scoring instrument to quantify surgeon skill. Normalized composite skill scores for each surgeon were calculated using peer ratings. For surgeons submitting videos, we retrospectively reviewed all TURBT pathology results (2018-2019) to assess surgeon-specific detrusor sampling. A hierarchical logistic regression model was fit to evaluate the association between skill and detrusor sampling, adjusting for patient and surgeon factors. RESULTS: Surgeon skill scores and detrusor sampling rates were determined for 13 surgeons performing 245 TURBTs. Skill scores varied from -6.0 to 5.1 [mean: 0; standard deviation (SD): 2.40]. Muscle was sampled in 72% of cases, varying considerably across surgeons (mean: 64.5%; SD: 30.7%). Among 8 surgeons performing >5 TURBTs during the study period, adjusted detrusor sampling rate was associated with sending separate deep specimens (odds ratio [OR]: 1.97; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02-3.81, P = .045) but not skill (OR: 0.81; 95% CI: 0.57-1.17, P = .191). CONCLUSION: Surgeon skill was not associated with detrusor sampling, suggesting there may be other drivers of variability of detrusor sampling in TURBT.

Abstinence-Dependent Effects of Long-Access Cocaine Self-Administration on Nucleus Accumbens Astrocytes Are Observed in Male, But Not Female, Rats.

Accumulating evidence indicates significant consequences for astrocytes associated with drug abuse. For example, reductions in structural features and synaptic colocalization of male rat nucleus accumbens (NAc) astrocytes are observed following short-access (ShA; 2 h/d) self-administration and extinction from cocaine, methamphetamine, and heroin. However, it is unknown whether these observations extend to other rodent models of drug abuse, how enduring these effects may be, and whether similar effects are observed in female rats. Here, we assess the effects of long-access (LgA; 6 h/d) cocaine self-administration and abstinence on NAc astrocytes separately in male and female rats, employing a commonly used behavioral approach to investigate the incubation of cocaine craving. NAc astrocytes from male rats exhibit extensive (∼40%) reductions in surface area, volume, and postsynaptic colocalization 45 d but not 24 h after the last self-administration session. In contrast, no effect of self-administration and abstinence was observed in astrocytes from female rats. Moreover, no effect of LgA self-administration and abstinence was observed on NAc GLT-1 expression in female rats, an effect that has been well described in males. These results indicate striking and sexually dimorphic effects of abstinence subsequent to LgA self-administration on astrocytes. Taken together, these results indicate a pivotal role of prolonged abstinence in the effects of cocaine self-administration on NAc astrocytes, and extend a growing body of evidence regarding sex differences in the cellular consequences of drug self-administration in the brain.

Nav1.7 target modulation and efficacy can be measured in nonhuman primate assays.

Humans with loss-of-function mutations in the Nav1.7 channel gene (SCN9A) show profound insensitivity to pain, whereas those with gain-of-function mutations can have inherited pain syndromes. Therefore, inhibition of the Nav1.7 channel with a small molecule has been considered a promising approach for the treatment of various human pain conditions. To date, clinical studies conducted using selective Nav1.7 inhibitors have not provided analgesic efficacy sufficient to warrant further investment. Clinical studies to date used multiples of in vitro IC50 values derived from electrophysiological studies to calculate anticipated human doses. To increase the chance of clinical success, we developed rhesus macaque models of action potential propagation, nociception, and olfaction, to measure Nav1.7 target modulation in vivo. The potent and selective Nav1.7 inhibitors SSCI-1 and SSCI-2 dose-dependently blocked C-fiber nociceptor conduction in microneurography studies and inhibited withdrawal responses to noxious heat in rhesus monkeys. Pharmacological Nav1.7 inhibition also reduced odor-induced activation of the olfactory bulb (OB), measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies consistent with the anosmia reported in Nav1.7 loss-of-function patients. These data demonstrate that it is possible to measure Nav1.7 target modulation in rhesus macaques and determine the plasma concentration required to produce a predetermined level of inhibition. The calculated plasma concentration for preclinical efficacy could be used to guide human efficacious exposure estimates. Given the translatable nature of the assays used, it is anticipated that they can be also used in phase 1 clinical studies to measure target modulation and aid in the interpretation of phase 1 clinical data.

Evaluation of Opioid Prescribing Patterns and Drivers of Variation Following Endoscopic Procedures for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Across an Integrated Academic Health System.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate patient, provider, and facility factors associated with variation in opioid prescribing after endoscopic procedures for benign prostatic hyperplasia across a large academic health system to drive improvement efforts. METHODS: Opioids prescribed at discharge for patients who underwent an endoscopic prostate procedure March 2018-November 2019 were analyzed. Multivariable logistic and linear regression were used to evaluate the relationship between patient, provider, and facility factors and the receipt of any opioid prescription and the quantity prescribed. RESULTS: We included 724 patients who had surgery with one of 26 urologists across five facilities. 222 (30.7%) received an opioid prescription, and the average morphine milligram equivalents (MMEs) prescribed was 97.9±33.5. We found wide variation in the proportion of patients who received an opioid prescription across surgeons (range 0%-88.9%) and facilities (range 19.9%-66.7%) and the average MMEs prescribed (range 25-188.5). Outpatient surgery (OR 2.32; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.22-4.40, P = .010) and preoperative opioid use (OR 15.04; CI 9.65-23.45, P < .001) were associated with higher rates of opioid prescribing, while prescribing decreased with increasing patient age (OR 0.97; CI 0.95-0.99, P = 0.016). Multivariable linear regression analysis demonstrated an association between surgery at satellite facilities, having a surgeon in practice for at least 20 years, and higher surgeon volume with increased MMEs prescribed. CONCLUSIONS: Opioid prescribing following endoscopic prostate procedures varied widely. Targeted interventions tailored to younger patients, those taking opioids preoperatively, recipients of outpatient surgery and those undergoing surgery at satellite facilities may be particularly high yield given the association between these factors and increased postoperative prescribing.

Mechanisms of Cerebral Microbleeds.

Cerebral microbleeds (CMB) are a common MRI finding, representing underlying cerebral microhemorrhages (CMH). The etiology of CMB and microhemorrhages is obscure. We conducted a pathological investigation of CMH, combining standard and immunohistological analyses of postmortem human brains. We analyzed 5 brain regions (middle frontal gyrus, occipital pole, rostral cingulate cortex, caudal cingulate cortex, and basal ganglia) of 76 brain bank subjects (mean age ± SE 90 ± 1.4 years). Prussian blue positivity, used as an index of CMH, was subjected to quantitative analysis for all 5 brain regions. Brains from the top and bottom quartiles (n = 19 each) were compared for quantitative immunohistological findings of smooth muscle actin, claudin-5, and fibrinogen, and for Sclerosis Index (SI) (a measure of arteriolar remodeling). Brains in the top quartile (i.e. with most extensive CMH) had significantly higher SI in the 5 brain regions combined (0.379 ± 0.007 vs 0.355 ± 0.008; p < 0.05). These findings indicate significant coexistence of arteriolar remodeling with CMH. While these findings provide clues to mechanisms of microhemorrhage development, further studies of experimental neuropathology are needed to determine causal relationships.

Potent, non-covalent reversible BTK inhibitors with 8-amino-imidazo[1,5-a]pyrazine core featuring 3-position bicyclic ring substitutes.

Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) is a Tec family kinase with a well-defined role in the B cell receptor (BCR) pathway. It has become an attractive kinase target for selective B cell inhibition, and for the treatment of B cell related diseases. Many BTK inhibitors have been discovered for the treatment of cancer and rheumatoid arthritis, including a series of BTK inhibitors based on 8-amino-imidazo[1,5-a]pyrazine we recently reported. The X-ray crystal structures of BTK with inhibitors were also published, which provided great help for the SAR design. Here we report our SAR work introducing ring constraints for the 3-position piperidine amides on the BTK inhibitors based on 8-amino-imidazo[1,5-a]pyrazine. This modification improved the potency in BTK inhibitions, as well as the PK profile and the off-target selectivity. The dose-dependent efficacy of two BTK inhibitors was observed in the rat collagen induced arthritis (CIA) model.

High-Resolution Three-Dimensional Imaging of Individual Astrocytes Using Confocal Microscopy.

Astrocytes play numerous vital roles in the central nervous system. Accordingly, it is of merit to identify structural and functional properties of astrocytes in both health and disease. The majority of studies examining the morphology of astrocytes have employed immunoassays for markers such as glial fibrillary acidic protein, which are insufficient to encapsulate the considerable structural complexity of these cells. Herein, we describe a method utilizing a commercially available and validated, genetically encoded membrane-associated fluorescent marker of astrocytes, AAV5-GfaABC1D-Lck-GFP. This tool and approach allow for visualization of a single isolated astrocyte in its entirety, including fine peripheral processes. Astrocytes are imaged using confocal microscopy and reconstructed in three dimensions to obtain detailed morphometric data. We further provide an immunohistochemistry procedure to assess colocalization of isolated astrocytes with synaptic markers throughout the z-plane. This technique, which can be utilized via a standard laboratory confocal microscope and Imaris software, allows for detailed analysis of the morphology and synaptic colocalization of astrocytes in fixed tissue. © 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Basic Protocol 1: Microinjection of AAV5-GfaABC1D-Lck-GFP into the nucleus accumbens of rats Basic Protocol 2: Tissue processing and immunohistochemistry for post-synaptic density-95 Basic Protocol 3: Single-cell image acquisition Basic Protocol 4: Three-dimensional reconstruction of single cells Basic Protocol 5: Three-dimensional colocalization analysis.

A Rare Case of Ovarian Serous Borderline Tumor with Brain Metastasis.

Background. Serous borderline tumor represents a group of noninvasive tumor of the ovary bridging between benign serous cystadenoma and serous carcinoma. They are commonly seen in younger women and usually have an excellent outcome but seldom show local recurrence (J. F. Leake et al. 1991). Metastasis to the lymph nodes has rarely been reported (M. D. Chamberlin et al., 2001; M. B. Verbruggen et al., 2006). Moreover, the brain is exceptionally a rare metastatic site for ovarian tumor. There is one case of an advanced staged SBT with micropapillary pattern metastasis to the brain recently and by far it is the most distant metastasis reported (M. D. Martin et al., 2017). However, to the best of our knowledge, no report has been documented for a recurrent stage 1 typical SBT metastasizing to the brain.

Somatic SMARCB1 Mutation in Sporadic Multiple Meningiomas: Case Report.

Background: Multiple intracranial meningiomas account for <10% of all meningiomas. Familial multiple meningiomas have been linked to germline mutations in two genes: neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) and SWIch/Sucrose Non-Fermentable (SWI/SNF)-related matrix-associated actin-dependent regulator of chromatin subfamily B member 1 (SMARCB1). Sporadic multiple meningiomas have been associated with somatic NF2 mutations and, to date, there has been no case related to somatic SMARCB1 mutations. Here, we describe the first case. Case Report: A 45-year-old female suffered a head trauma while snowboarding. Subsequent to her injury, she experienced persistent headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and flashing lights in the right eye. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of her brain revealed multiple intracranial meningiomas. She underwent a two-staged craniotomy to remove frontal/parietal/temporal and occipital extra-axial tumors. Pathology confirmed the masses as meningiomas, WHO Grade I. Tumor genetic testing was positive for SMARCB1 mutation but blood genetic testing was negative for SMARCB1 mutation. Conclusion: In sporadic multiple meningiomas, somatic NF2 mutations are usually the suspected genetic alternations. Our case illustrates that somatic SMARCB1 mutation is another genetic risk factor for sporadic multiple meningiomas, albeit rare.

Intracranial meningioma with carcinoma tumor-to-tumor metastasis: two case reports.

Meningiomas have been implicated as the most common primary intracranial tumor to contain tumor-to-tumor metastasis. In the following two case reports, we describe cases of adenocarcinoma and breast carcinoma that metastasized into an intracranial meningioma. The first patient was a 64-year-old man presenting to the emergency department with seizures and loss of consciousness. After a left frontal mass resection, pathology reported a heterogeneous mass consisting of a meningioma and a metastatic adenocarcinoma component. The second patient was a 63-year-old woman presenting with significant vision problems and unstable gait. After a right frontal mass resection, pathology reported a heterogeneous mass consisting of a meningioma and a metastatic breast carcinoma component. Possible explanations for the development of the tumor-to-tumor metastasis are described.

Aging exacerbates development of cerebral microbleeds in a mouse model.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral microhemorrhages (CMH) are commonly found in the aging brain. CMH are also the neuropathological substrate of cerebral microbleeds (CMB), demonstrated on brain MRI. Recent studies demonstrate the importance of systemic inflammation in CMH development, but the relationships among inflammation, aging, and CMH development are not well-defined. In the current study, we hypothesized that the pathogenesis of inflammation-induced CMH in mice differs by age. METHODS: We studied young (3 months, n = 20) and old (18 months, n = 25) C57BL/6 mice injected with low-dose lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 1 mg/kg, i.p.) or saline at 0, 6, and 24 h. Seven days after the first LPS/saline injection, brains were harvested, sectioned, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and Prussian blue (PB) to estimate acute/fresh and sub-acute CMH development, respectively. The relationships between microglial/macrophage activation (ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule-1), astrocyte activation (glial fibrillary acidic protein), blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption (brain immunoglobulin G), aging, and CMH development were examined using immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Aging alone did not increase spontaneous H&E-positive CMH development but significantly increased the number, size, and total area of LPS-induced H&E-positive CMH in mice. LPS- and saline-treated aged mice had significantly larger PB-positive CMH compared with young mice, but the total area of PB-positive CMH was increased only in LPS-treated aged mice. Aged mice had significantly increased microglial/macrophage activation, which correlated with H&E- and PB-positive CMH development. Aged mice treated with LPS had significantly increased astrocyte activation and BBB disruption compared with young LPS-treated mice. CONCLUSIONS: Aging makes the brain more susceptible to inflammation-induced CMH in mice, and this increase in CMH with aging is associated with microglial/macrophage activation.

Astroglial correlates of neuropsychiatric disease: From astrocytopathy to astrogliosis.

Complex roles for astrocytes in health and disease continue to emerge, highlighting this class of cells as integral to function and dysfunction of the nervous system. In particular, escalating evidence strongly implicates a range of changes in astrocyte structure and function associated with neuropsychiatric diseases including major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and addiction. These changes can range from astrocytopathy, degeneration, and loss of function, to astrogliosis and hypertrophy, and can be either adaptive or maladaptive. Evidence from the literature indicates a myriad of changes observed in astrocytes from both human postmortem studies as well as preclinical animal models, including changes in expression of glial fibrillary protein, as well as changes in astrocyte morphology and astrocyte-mediated regulation of synaptic function. In this review, we seek to provide a comprehensive assessment of these findings and consequently evidence for common themes regarding adaptations in astrocytes associated with neuropsychiatric disease. While results are mixed across conditions and models, general findings indicate decreased astrocyte cellular features and gene expression in depression, chronic stress and anxiety, but increased inflammation in schizophrenia. Changes also vary widely in response to different drugs of abuse, with evidence reflective of features of astrocytopathy to astrogliosis, varying across drug classes, route of administration and length of withdrawal.