Nameability supports rule-based category learning in children and adults.

The present study tested the hypothesis that verbal labels support category induction by providing compact hypotheses. Ninety-seven 4- to 6-year-old children (M = 63.2 months; 46 female, 51 male; 77% White, 8% more than one race, 4% Asian, and 3% Black; tested 2018) and 90 adults (M = 20.1 years; 70 female, 20 male) in the Midwestern United States learned novel categories with features that were easy (e.g., "red") or difficult (e.g., "mauve") to name. Adults (d = 1.06) and-to a lesser extent-children (d = 0.57; final training block) learned categories composed of more nameable features better. Children's knowledge of difficult-to-name color words predicted their learning for categories with difficult-to-name features. Rule-based category learning may be supported by the emerging ability to form verbal hypotheses.

Screen media exposure and young children's vocabulary learning and development: A meta-analysis.

This meta-analysis synthesizes research on media use in early childhood (0-6 years), word-learning, and vocabulary size. Multi-level analyses included 266 effect sizes from 63 studies (Ntotal = 11,413) published between 1988-2022. Among samples with information about race/ethnicity (51%) and sex/gender (73%), most were majority White/Non-Hispanic and between 40%-60% female. Analyses revealed a small overall positive relation between screen media exposure and vocabulary (r = .23). Experimental studies yielded a small-to-medium effect (r = .30), with stronger effects for e-books than TV/video or games/apps, and non-significant effects for video chat. In correlational studies, there was no overall association between vocabulary size and naturalistic media exposure (r = .07), with the exception of naturalistic exposure to educational media (r = .17).

Human perception and machine vision reveal rich latent structure in human figure drawings.

For over a hundred years, children's drawings have been used to assess children's intellectual, emotional, and physical development, characterizing children on the basis of intuitively derived checklists to identify the presence or absence of features within children's drawings. The current study investigates whether contemporary data science tools, including deep neural network models of vision and crowd-based similarity ratings, can reveal latent structure in human figure drawings beyond that captured by checklists, and whether such structure can aid in understanding aspects of the child's cognitive, perceptual, and motor competencies. We introduce three new metrics derived from innovations in machine vision and crowd-sourcing of human judgments and show that they capture a wealth of information about the participant beyond that expressed by standard measures, including age, gender, motor abilities, personal/social behaviors, and communicative skills. Machine-and human-derived metrics captured somewhat different aspects of structure across drawings, and each were independently useful for predicting some participant characteristics. For example, machine embeddings seemed sensitive to the magnitude of the drawing on the page and stroke density, while human-derived embeddings appeared sensitive to the overall shape and parts of a drawing. Both metrics, however, independently explained variation on some outcome measures. Machine embeddings explained more variation than human embeddings on all subscales of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (a parent report of developmental milestones) and on measures of grip and pinch strength, while each metric accounted for unique variance in models predicting the participant's gender. This research thus suggests that children's drawings may provide a richer basis for characterizing aspects of cognitive, behavioral, and motor development than previously thought.

Searching in the sand: Protracted video deficit in U.S. preschoolers' spatial recall using a continuous search space.

Young children exhibit a video deficit for spatial recall, learning less from on-screen than in-person demonstrations. Some theoretical accounts emphasize memory constraints (e.g., insufficient retrieval cues, competition between memory representations). Such accounts imply memory representations are graded, yet video deficit studies measuring spatial recall operationalize memory retrieval as dichotomous (success or failure). The current study tested a graded-representation account using a spatial recall task with a continuous search space (i.e., sandbox) rather than discrete locations. With this more sensitive task, a protracted video deficit for spatial recall was found in children 4-5 years old (n = 51). This may be due to weaker memory representations in the screen condition, evidenced by higher variability and greater perseverative bias. In general, perseverative bias decreased with repeated trials. The discussion considers how the results support a graded-representation account, potentially explaining why children might exhibit a video deficit in some tasks but not others. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The task used a continuous search space (sandbox), making it more difficult and sensitive than spatial recall tasks used in prior video deficit research. Spatial recall among 4- and 5-year-old children was more variable after watching hiding events on screen via live video feed than through a window. Children's spatial recall from screens was more susceptible to proactive interference, evidenced by more perseverative bias in an A-not-B design. The results demonstrate memory representations blend experiences that accumulate over time and explain why the video deficit may be protracted for more difficult tasks.

The effect of narrative coherence and visual salience on children's and adults' gaze while watching video.

Low-level visual features (e.g., motion, contrast) predict eye gaze during video viewing. The current study investigated the effect of narrative coherence on the extent to which low-level visual salience predicts eye gaze. Eye movements were recorded as 4-year-olds (n = 20) and adults (n = 20) watched a cohesive versus random sequence of video shots from a 4.5-min full vignette from Sesame Street. Overall, visual salience was a stronger predictor of gaze in adults than in children, especially when viewing a random shot sequence. The impact of narrative coherence on children's gaze was limited to the short period of time surrounding cuts to new video shots. The discussion considers potential direct effects of visual salience as well as incidental effects due to overlap between salient features and semantic content. The findings are also discussed in the context of developing video comprehension.

Reexamining models of early learning in the digital age: Applications for learning in the wild.

Young children are growing up in an increasingly complicated digital world. Laboratory-based research shows it is cognitively demanding to process and transfer information presented on screens during early childhood. Multiple explanations for this cognitive challenge have been proposed. This review provides an updated comprehensive framework that integrates prior theoretical explanations to develop new testable hypotheses. The review also considers the how the research can be generalized to the "wild" where children engage with multiple commercial products daily. It includes real-world applications for improving children's learning and memory from screen-based media by adding supportive cues and reducing distraction and interference. The review concludes with a call for future collaborative research between researchers, content developers, and families to better understand age-related changes in both short-term and long-term learning from digital media. Finally, policy makers need to be involved to ensure equitable access and to create a safe digital space for all families.

Touchscreens for Whom? Working Memory and Age Moderate the Impact of Contingency on Toddlers' Transfer From Video.

Toddlers exhibit poor transfer between video and real-world contexts. Contingently responsive video such as that found in touchscreen apps appears to assist transfer for some toddlers but not others. This study investigated the extent to which toddlers' working memory moderates the impact of contingency on toddler's transfer of learning from video. Toddlers (24-36 months; N = 134) watched a hiding event on either (a) contingent video that advanced only after touch input or (b) non-contingent video that proceeded automatically. Toddlers then searched for a corresponding object on a felt board. Additionally, toddlers' working memory (WM) was assessed. Findings indicate WM and age moderated the impact of contingency on transfer: Contingency decreased transfer in younger children while increasing transfer among older children. However, this was only true for children with relatively low WM. Contingency had little impact on transfer among children with relatively high WM, regardless of age. Results from this study suggest that WM is one specific moderator that predicts whether toddlers are likely to learn from contingent vs. non-contingent video, yet WM does not operate in isolation. Together, these findings underscore the importance of considering multiple child characteristics when identifying the optimal conditions for toddlers' learning from symbolic media.

Beyond Screen Time: A Synergistic Approach to a More Comprehensive Assessment of Family Media Exposure During Early Childhood.

Digital media availability has surged over the past decade. Because of a lack of comprehensive measurement tools, this rapid growth in access to digital media is accompanied by a scarcity of research examining the family media context and sociocognitive outcomes. There is also little cross-cultural research in families with young children. Modern media are mobile, interactive, and often short in duration, making them difficult to remember when caregivers respond to surveys about media use. The Comprehensive Assessment of Family Media Exposure (CAFE) Consortium has developed a novel tool to measure household media use through a web-based questionnaire, time-use diary, and passive-sensing app installed on family mobile devices. The goal of developing a comprehensive assessment of family media exposure was to take into account the contextual factors of media use and improve upon the limitations of existing self-report measures, while creating a consistent, scalable, and cost-effective tool. The CAFE tool captures the content and context of early media exposure and addresses the limitations of prior media measurement approaches. Preliminary data collected using this measure have been integrated into a shared visualization platform. In this perspective article, we take a tools-of-the-trade approach (Oakes, 2010) to describe four challenges associated with measuring household media exposure in families with young children: measuring attitudes and practices; capturing content and context; measuring short bursts of mobile device usage; and integrating data to capture the complexity of household media usage. We illustrate how each of these challenges can be addressed with preliminary data collected with the CAFE tool and visualized on our dashboard. We conclude with future directions including plans to test reliability, validity, and generalizability of these measures.

Teaching With Televised Stories: A Story-Focused Narrative Preview Supports Learning in Young Children.

Researchers examined the effects of previewing on preschoolers' comprehension of narrative and educational content in a television program. Children (3-5 years, N = 107) watched an educational math episode in one of three conditions: no-preview control, education-focused expository preview, or story-focused narrative preview. A main effect of previewing was found, controlling for age, character familiarity, prior knowledge, and visual attention. Specifically, the narrative preview enhanced both narrative comprehension (including central, incidental, and inferential content) and educational comprehension (including direct learning and transfer), compared to a no-preview control. Conversely, the expository preview had no effect on comprehension. Findings are interpreted with respect to story schema and relevant cognitive theories of learning from media. Implications for educational media production are discussed.

Investigating Cumulative Exposures among 3- to 4-Year-Old Children Using Wearable Ultrafine Particle Sensors and Language Environment Devices: A Pilot and Feasibility Study.

Interdisciplinary approaches are needed to measure the additive or multiplicative impacts of chemical and non-chemical stressors on child development outcomes. The lack of interdisciplinary approaches to environmental health and child development has led to a gap in the development of effective intervention strategies. It is hypothesized that a broader systems approach can support more effective interventions over time. To achieve these goals, detailed study protocols are needed. Researchers in child development typically focus on psychosocial stressors. Less attention is paid to chemical and non-chemical stressors and how the interaction of these stressors may impact child development. This feasibility study aims to bridge the gap between child development and environmental epidemiology research by trialing novel methods of gathering ultrafine particle data with a wearable air sensor, while simultaneously gathering language and noise data with the Language Environment Analysis (LENA) system. Additionally, psychosocial data (e.g., parenting quality, caregiver depression, and household chaos) was gathered from parent reports. Child participants (age 3-4 years) completed cognitive tasks to assess self-regulation and receptive language skills, and provided a biospecimen analyzed for inflammatory biomarkers. Data collection was completed at two time points, roughly corresponding to fall and spring. Twenty-six participants were recruited for baseline data, and 11 participants completed a follow-up session. Preliminary results indicate that it is feasible to gather personal Particulate Matter (PM2.5), language, and noise data, cognitive assessments, and biospecimens from our sample of 3-4-year-old children. While there are obstacles to overcome when working with this age group, future studies can benefit from adapting lessons learned regarding recruitment strategies, study design, and protocol implementation.

Young Children's Use of Smartphones and Tablets.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Child mobile device use is increasingly prevalent, but research is limited by parent-report survey methods that may not capture the complex ways devices are used. We aimed to implement mobile device sampling, a set of novel methods for objectively measuring child mobile device use. METHODS: We recruited 346 English-speaking parents and guardians of children aged 3 to 5 years to take part in a prospective cohort study of child media use. All interactions with participants were through e-mail, online surveys, and mobile device sampling; we used a passive-sensing application (Chronicle) in Android devices and screenshots of the battery feature in iOS devices. Baseline data were analyzed to describe usage behaviors and compare sampling output with parent-reported duration of use. RESULTS: The sample comprised 126 Android users (35 tablets, 91 smartphones) and 220 iOS users (143 tablets, 77 smartphones); 35.0% of children had their own device. The most commonly used applications were YouTube, YouTube Kids, Internet browser, quick search or Siri, and streaming video services. Average daily usage among the 121 children with their own device was 115.3 minutes/day (SD 115.1; range 0.20-632.5) and was similar between Android and iOS devices. Compared with mobile device sampling output, most parents underestimated (35.7%) or overestimated (34.8%) their child's use. CONCLUSIONS: Mobile device sampling is an unobtrusive and accurate method for assessing mobile device use. Parent-reported duration of mobile device use in young children has low accuracy, and use of objective measures is needed in future research.

Using eye-tracking to understand relations between visual attention and language in children's spatial skills.

Relations between children's spatial language and spatial skills raise questions regarding whether the effects are unique to language or reflect non-linguistic processes. Different paradigms provided mixed evidence: experimenter-provided language supports spatial performance more than visual cues; however, children's non-verbal attention predicts their spatial performance more than their language production. The current study used eye-tracking during spatial recall to compare effects of language versus visual cues. Four- to five-year-old children completed two tasks requiring memory for the location of a toy under one of four cups in an array of cups and landmarks after a 5 s delay and array rotation. Children first completed the baseline task with non-specific cues, followed by the cue-manipulation task with either language, visual, or non-specific cues provided by the experimenter. As in prior studies, language cues were most effective in facilitating recall. Children's visual attention was directed by both language and visual cues to support their recall. However, visual attention only partially mediated the effects of language: language supported recall above and beyond directing visual attention. These results indicate that visual attention supports spatial recall, but language has additional unique influences. This may result from language providing a more coherent or redundant code to visual information, or due to the pragmatic nature of language cueing relevance in ways visual cues do not. Additionally, differences across conditions may reflect more benefit from endogenous versus exogenous attentional control. Through using eye-tracking, this research provided new insights into processes by which language and visual attention influence children's spatial cognition.

Drawing across media: A cross-sectional experiment on preschoolers' drawings produced using traditional versus electronic mediums.

Young children's growing access to touchscreen technology represents one of many contextual factors that may influence development. The focus of the current study was the impact of traditional versus electronic drawing materials on the quality of children's drawings during the preschool years. Young children (2-5 years, N = 73) and a comparison group of adults (N = 24) copied shapes using three mediums: marker on paper, stylus on touchscreen tablet, finger on touchscreen tablet. Drawings were later deemed codable or uncodable (e.g., scribbles), and codable drawings were then scored for subjective quality on a 4-point scale. Girls and older children (vs. boys and younger children) produced more codable drawings; however, this gap closed when children drew with their finger on a tablet. Medium also affected the quality of adults' drawings, favoring marker on paper. Thus, drawing on a tablet helped younger children produce drawings but resulted in lower quality drawings among adults. These findings underscore the importance of considering environmental constraints on drawing production. Moreover, since clinical assessments often include measures of drawing quality, and sometimes use tablet computers for drawing, these findings have practical implications for education and clinical practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Effect of sequential video shot comprehensibility on attentional synchrony: A comparison of children and adults.

To comprehend edited video, viewers must infer the meaning conveyed by successive video shots (i.e., continuous video segments separated by edit points, such as camera cuts). The central question here was whether comprehension-related top-down cognitive processes drive eye movements during sequential processing of video montage. Eye movements were recorded as 4 year olds and adults (n = 62) watched a video with the same constituent shots in either normal or random sequence. The key analyses compared eye movements to constituent shots when presented in normal order with those to the same shots presented in random order. The dependent variable was attentional synchrony or the extent to which viewers looked at the same location at the same time, indicating commonality of processing the video. This was calculated as the bivariate contour ellipse area within which points of gaze fell during each video frame. Results indicated that children were more scattered in their gaze locations than adults. Viewers became more similar to each other as normal vignettes unfolded over time; this was especially true in adults and possibly reflects a growing and shared understanding of the content. Conversely, adult attentional synchrony was reduced when watching random shot sequences. Thus, attentional synchrony during normal video viewing is driven not only by salient visual features, such as movement and areas of high contrast, but also, by the unfolding sequential comprehension of video montage, especially in adults. Differences between children and adults indicate that this top-down control of eye movements while watching video changes systematically over development.

Understanding the Transfer Deficit: Contextual Mismatch, Proactive Interference, and Working Memory Affect Toddlers' Video-Based Transfer.

Researchers tested the impact of contextual mismatch, proactive interference, and working memory (WM) on toddlers' transfer across contexts. Forty-two toddlers (27-34 months) completed four object-retrieval trials, requiring memory updating on Trials 2-4. Participants watched hiding events on a tablet computer. Search performance was tested using another tablet (match) or a felt board (mismatch). WM was assessed. On earlier search trials, WM predicted transfer in both conditions, and toddlers in the match condition outperformed those in the mismatch condition; however, the benefit of contextual match and WM decreased over trials. Contextual match apparently increased proactive interference on later trials. Findings are interpreted within existing accounts of the transfer deficit, and a combined account is proposed.

Knowing How to Fold 'em: Paper Folding across Early Childhood.

Folding paper is a seemingly simple act that requires planning, bimanual coordination, and manual strength and control to produce specific forces. Although paper folding has been used as an assessment tool and as a way to promote spatial skills, this study represents the first attempt to document when paper folding emerges across early childhood. Seventy-seven children (ages 18 months to 7 years) and an adult reference group (24 college-aged adults) completed three pre-specified folds on a single piece of paper. Dependent variables included whether children attempted each fold and, if so, the accuracy of each fold. Grip strength, pinch strength, and developmental level were examined as potential correlates of paper folding. The results demonstrated that paper folding emerges as early as 27 months of age but becomes more accurate with age. At least 50% of children between 4 and 5 1/2 years of age completed folds. Additionally, children with more age-appropriate problem-solving skills attempted more folds, independent of age. These findings provide a descriptive framework for the ages at which paper folding emerges and suggest that paper-folding interventions could be implemented at even earlier ages than what previously has been examined.

Children's Learning From Interactive eBooks: Simple Irrelevant Features Are Not Necessarily Worse Than Relevant Ones.

The purpose of this study was to investigate experimentally the extent to which children's novel word learning and story comprehension differs for non-interactive eBooks and interactive eBooks with simple relevant or irrelevant interactive features that advance the narrative. An original story with novel word-object pairs was read to preschoolers (3-5 years old, N = 103) using one of the three eBook formats: non-interactive control, interactive-relevant, interactive-irrelevant. The book formats differed only in the manner in which the story advanced from one page to the next: children observed the experimenter turn the page (non-interactive), children touched a relevant image on the screen (relevant-interactive), or children touched an irrelevant image on the screen (irrelevant-interactive). Novel word learning and story comprehension were assessed with post-tests in which children picked target objects from an array and sorted story events into their original sequence, respectively. Findings indicate that word learning and story comprehension were similar across all three books, suggesting that simple interactive features - whether relevant or irrelevant to the story - had little impact on preschoolers' learning in this controlled experiment. Thus, simple interactivity that does not disrupt the story also does not hinder ongoing story comprehension.

Media Multitasking and Cognitive, Psychological, Neural, and Learning Differences.

American youth spend more time with media than any other waking activity: an average of 7.5 hours per day, every day. On average, 29% of that time is spent juggling multiple media streams simultaneously (ie, media multitasking). This phenomenon is not limited to American youth but is paralleled across the globe. Given that a large number of media multitaskers (MMTs) are children and young adults whose brains are still developing, there is great urgency to understand the neurocognitive profiles of MMTs. It is critical to understand the relation between the relevant cognitive domains and underlying neural structure and function. Of equal importance is understanding the types of information processing that are necessary in 21st century learning environments. The present review surveys the growing body of evidence demonstrating that heavy MMTs show differences in cognition (eg, poorer memory), psychosocial behavior (eg, increased impulsivity), and neural structure (eg, reduced volume in anterior cingulate cortex). Furthermore, research indicates that multitasking with media during learning (in class or at home) can negatively affect academic outcomes. Until the direction of causality is understood (whether media multitasking causes such behavioral and neural differences or whether individuals with such differences tend to multitask with media more often), the data suggest that engagement with concurrent media streams should be thoughtfully considered. Findings from such research promise to inform policy and practice on an increasingly urgent societal issue while significantly advancing our understanding of the intersections between cognitive, psychosocial, neural, and academic factors.

Associations Between Toddlers' Naturalistic Media Experience and Observed Learning from Screens.

Using secondary analysis, researchers examined associations between two-year-olds' (N = 135) naturalistic use of interactive and noninteractive media with performance on a screen-based learning task. Parents reported the number of minutes that children spent the previous day doing nine media-related activities (e.g., watching television, playing handheld videogames). The object-retrieval task required children to watch a hiding event on video and then search for the object on another screen or a real felt board. Results indicated that toddlers' naturalistic experience with interactive (but not noninteractive) media predicted their screen-based learning in the laboratory. This was true regardless of whether children were tested using interactive or noninteractive video, suggesting that using interactive media (but not watching noninteractive video) is associated with children's learning from screen media generally.

Anticipatory Eye Movements While Watching Continuous Action Across Shots in Video Sequences: A Developmental Study.

Eye movements were recorded as 12-month-olds (n = 15), 4-year-olds (n = 17), and adults (n = 19) watched a 15-min video with sequences of shots conveying continuous motion. The central question was whether, and at what age, viewers anticipate the reappearance of objects following cuts to new shots. Adults were more likely than younger viewers to make anticipatory eye movements. Four-year-olds responded to transitions more slowly and tended to fixate the center of the screen. Infants' eye movement patterns reflected a tendency to react rather than anticipate. Findings are consistent with the hypothesis that adults integrate content across shots and understand how space is represented in edited video. Results are interpreted with respect to a developing understanding of film editing due to experience and cognitive maturation.