Structural studies of thymidine kinases from Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus cereus provide insights into quaternary structure and conformational changes upon substrate binding.

Thymidine kinase (TK) is the key enzyme in salvaging thymidine to produce thymidine monophosphate. Owing to its ability to phosphorylate nucleoside analogue prodrugs, TK has gained attention as a rate-limiting drug activator. We describe the structures of two bacterial TKs, one from the pathogen Bacillus anthracis in complex with the substrate dT, and the second from the food-poison-associated Bacillus cereus in complex with the feedback inhibitor dTTP. Interestingly, in contrast with previous structures of TK in complex with dTTP, in this study dTTP occupies the phosphate donor site and not the phosphate acceptor site. This results in several conformational changes compared with TK structures described previously. One of the differences is the way tetramers are formed. Unlike B. anthracis TK, B. cereus TK shows a loose tetramer. Moreover, the lasso-domain is in open conformation in B. cereus TK without any substrate in the active site, whereas in B. anthracis TK the loop conformation is closed and thymidine occupies the active site. Another conformational difference lies within a region of 20 residues that we refer to as phosphate-binding beta-hairpin. The phosphate-binding beta-hairpin seems to be a flexible region of the enzyme which becomes ordered upon formation of hydrogen bonds to the alpha-phosphate of the phosphate donor, dTTP. In addition to descriptions of the different conformations that TK may adopt during the course of reaction, the oligomeric state of the enzyme is investigated.

Structure of the substrate complex of thymidine kinase from Ureaplasma urealyticum and investigations of possible drug targets for the enzyme.

Thymidine kinases have been found in most organisms, from viruses and bacteria to mammals. Ureaplasma urealyticum (parvum), which belongs to the class of cell-wall-lacking Mollicutes, has no de novo synthesis of DNA precursors and therefore has to rely on the salvage pathway. Thus, thymidine kinase (Uu-TK) is the key enzyme in dTTP synthesis. Recently the 3D structure of Uu-TK was determined in a feedback inhibitor complex, demonstrating that a lasso-like loop binds the thymidine moiety of the feedback inhibitor by hydrogen bonding to main-chain atoms. Here the structure with the substrate deoxythymidine is presented. The substrate binds similarly to the deoxythymidine part of the feedback inhibitor, and the lasso-like loop binds the base and deoxyribose moieties as in the complex determined previously. The catalytic base, Glu97, has a different position in the substrate complex from that in the complex with the feedback inhibitor, having moved in closer to the 5'-OH of the substrate to form a hydrogen bond. The phosphorylation of and inhibition by several nucleoside analogues were investigated and are discussed in the light of the substrate binding pocket, in comparison with human TK1. Kinetic differences between Uu-TK and human TK1 were observed that may be explained by structural differences. The tight interaction with the substrate allows minor substitutions at the 3 and 5 positions of the base, only fluorine substitutions at the 2'-Ara position, but larger substitutions at the 3' position of the deoxyribose.

Structures of thymidine kinase 1 of human and mycoplasmic origin.

Cytosolic thymidine kinase 1, TK1, is a well known cell-cycle-regulated enzyme of importance in nucleotide metabolism as well as an activator of antiviral and anticancer drugs such as 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (AZT). We have now determined the structures of the TK1 family, the human and Ureaplasma urealyticum enzymes, in complex with the feedback inhibitor dTTP. The TK1s have a tetrameric structure in which each subunit contains an alpha/beta-domain that is similar to ATPase domains of members of the RecA structural family and a domain containing a structural zinc. The zinc ion connects beta-structures at the root of a beta-ribbon that forms a stem that widens to a lasso-type loop. The thymidine of dTTP is hydrogen-bonded to main-chain atoms predominantly coming from the lasso loop. This binding is in contrast to other deoxyribonucleoside kinases where specific interactions occur with side chains. The TK1 structure differs fundamentally from the structures of the other deoxyribonucleoside kinases, indicating a different evolutionary origin.

Rearrangement of squamous cell carcinoma antigen genes--detection of SCCA fusion transcripts.

Squamous cell carcinoma antigen (SCCA), a member of the serine protease inhibitor (serpin) family, is a tumor-associated antigen and a serological marker for squamous cell carcinomas (SCC). Elevated serum levels are correlated with the clinical stage of the disease. Gene cloning has previously revealed two tandemly arrayed genes, SCCA1 and SCCA2. Using RT-PCR, an SCCA1/A2 transcript was identified in 6 out of 8 cell lines and the reciprocal SCCA2/A1 transcript was identified in 6 out of 8 analysed cell lines. Southern blot analysis showed an aberrant band pattern in 3 out of 5 cell lines. The cell lines demonstrating a normal band pattern corresponded to the cell lines where no fusion transcript was detected using PCR. Complex binding studies show that SCCA1/A2 binds to cathepsin G but not to cathepsin L, indicating that the SCCA1/A2 fusion protein has the specificity of SCCA2, but the transcription may be regulated as that of SCCA1. SCCA2/A1 reacts in the opposite way. The clinical relevance of these fusion transcripts is not yet known. Studies using primary tumours are underway to elucidate if these fusion transcripts are tumour specific and if they might be used as a diagnostic and prognostic marker for SCC.