Temporal dynamics of positive emotion regulation: insights from facial electromyography.

Introduction: Emotion regulation (ER) is a complex process that manifests gradually over time. This study investigated the temporal dynamics of ER in modifying positive emotions in terms of both negative affect (NA) and positive affect (PA) dimensions. Methods: After participants had been exposed to pleasant pictures for 8,000 ms, they received instructions to either continue viewing the picture (no regulation) or reappraise it with a neutral meaning (neutralize goal) or negative meaning (transform goal) for another 8,000 ms. We obtained corrugator supercilii and zygomaticus major electromyography (EMG) as objective measures of NA and PA. Results: For the no-regulation condition, upon instruction onset, we observed maintained low levels of corrugator and high levels of zygomaticus EMG reactivity, indicating sustained PA activation. Compared to the no-regulation condition, for the neutralize goal, we observed no change in corrugator reactivity, which remained at a low level, while zygomaticus reduction started at 1,000 ms after instruction onset, indicating decreased PA and generation of a neutral emotional state. For the transform goal, we observed corrugator increase and zygomaticus decrease both starting at 1,500 ms after instruction onset and co-existing throughout the regulation period. These results indicate increased NA and decreased PA, relating to generation of a negative emotional state. The transform goal differed from the neutralize goal in terms of corrugator increase starting at 2,500 ms after instruction onset. Albeit simultaneous onset of changes on corrugator and zygomaticus reactivity under the transform goal, model-fitting analyses indicated that the best-fitting trajectory was one that first emphasized PA reduction until, at 3,000 ms, it turned into primary NA increase. Discussion: These distinct temporal patterns highlight the possibility of effecting one-dimensional PA change with the neutralize goal and sequential two-dimensional change (first decreasing PA, then increasing NA) with the transform goal. This research sheds light on the time course of emotional change brought about by different regulatory goals.

The Role of Emotion Regulation, Affect, and Sleep in Individuals With Sleep Bruxism and Those Without: Protocol for a Remote Longitudinal Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: Sleep bruxism (SB) is an oral behavior characterized by high levels of repetitive jaw muscle activity during sleep, leading to teeth grinding and clenching, and may develop into a disorder. Despite its prevalence and negative outcomes on oral health and quality of life, there is currently no cure for SB. The etiology of SB remains poorly understood, but recent research suggests a potential role of negative emotions and maladaptive emotion regulation (ER). OBJECTIVE: This study's primary aim investigates whether ER is impaired in individuals with SB, while controlling for affective and sleep disturbances. The secondary aim tests for the presence of cross-sectional and longitudinal mediation pathways in the bidirectional relationships among SB, ER, affect, and sleep. METHODS: The study used a nonrandomized repeated-measures observational design and was conducted remotely. Participants aged 18-49 years underwent a 14-day ambulatory assessment. Data collection was carried out using electronic platforms. We assessed trait and state SB and ER alongside affect and sleep variables. We measured SB using self-reported trait questionnaires, ecological momentary assessment (EMA) for real-time reports of SB behavior, and portable electromyography for multinight assessment of rhythmic masticatory muscle activity. We assessed ER through self-reported trait questionnaires, EMA for real-time reports of ER strategies, and heart rate variability derived from an electrocardiography wireless physiological sensor as an objective physiological measure. Participants' trait affect and real-time emotional experiences were obtained using self-reported trait questionnaires and EMA. Sleep patterns and quality were evaluated using self-reported trait questionnaires and sleep diaries, as well as actigraphy as a physiological measure. For the primary objective, analyses will test for maladaptive ER in terms of strategy use frequency and effectiveness as a function of SB using targeted contrasts in the general linear model. Control analyses will be conducted to examine the persistence of the SB-ER relationship after adjusting for affective and sleep measures, as well as demographic variables. For the secondary objective, cross-sectional and longitudinal mediation analyses will test various competing models of directional effects among self-reported and physiological measures of SB, ER, affect, and sleep. RESULTS: This research received funding in April 2017. Data collection took place from August 2020 to March 2022. In all, 237 participants were eligible and completed the study. Data analysis has not yet started. CONCLUSIONS: We hope that the effort to thoroughly measure SB and ER using gold standard methods and cutting-edge technology will advance the knowledge of SB. The findings of this study may contribute to a better understanding of the relationship among SB, ER, affect, and sleep disturbances. By identifying the role of ER in SB, the results may pave the way for the development of targeted interventions for SB management to alleviate the pain and distress of those affected. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/41719.

Quantitative versus qualitative emotion regulation goals: Differential effects on emotional responses.

Emotion regulation (ER) involves both a goal (e.g., to feel less emotion) and a strategy (e.g., reappraisal). To clarify the impact of ER goals on emotional responding, we conducted a within-participant study (N = 156) in which we held the strategy constant (reappraisal) to isolate the impact of regulation goals. We compared the impact of a quantitative goal (changing emotion quantity/intensity) with that of a qualitative goal (changing emotion quality/type) on emotional responses to negative and positive pictures. We manipulated ER goals by cuing participants to continue viewing the picture (unregulated/no ER goal) or to reappraise it to decrease its predominant affective impact (quantitative goal) or increase its opposite-valence impact (qualitative goal). We assessed emotional responses through self-reported feelings and facial expressions (corrugator supercilii and zygomaticus major electromyography). Our findings suggest that the type of regulation goal has a differential effect on emotional responses, with qualitative goals being more effective in modulating both negative and positive emotions. For negative stimuli, attempts to use a quantitative goal decreased negative but not positive emotional responses (uncoupled negative deactivation). Conversely, attempts to use a qualitative goal decreased negative and increased positive emotional responses (reciprocal positive activation). For positive stimuli, the quantitative goal generated uncoupled positive deactivation, while the qualitative goal produced reciprocal negative activation. Results highlight the importance of considering specific regulation goals in shaping emotional responses. Future research in the field of ER may benefit from identifying and manipulating different goals and strategies to understand how to effectively regulate emotions.

The temporal dynamics of dissociation: protocol for an ecological momentary assessment and laboratory study in a transdiagnostic sample.

BACKGROUND: Dissociation is a ubiquitous clinical phenomenon. Dissociative disorders (DD) are primarily characterized by dissociation, and dissociative states are also a criterion for borderline personality disorder (BPD) and the dissociative subtype of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Dissociative reactions (e.g., depersonalization/derealization or gaps in awareness/memory) across diagnostic categories are believed to be affect contingent and theorized to serve affect regulation functions. What is not clear, however, is how self-reported affect and physiological reactivity unfold within dissociative episodes. To address this issue, the present project aims to investigate the hypothesis (1) whether self-reported distress (as indicated by arousal, e.g., feeling tense/agitated, and/or valence, e.g., feeling discontent/unwell) and physiological reactivity increase before dissociative episodes and (2) whether self-reported distress and physiological reactivity decrease during and after dissociative episodes in a transdiagnostic sample of patients with DD, BPD, and/or PTSD. METHODS: We will use a smartphone application to assess affect and dissociation 12 times per day over the course of one week in everyday life. During this time, heart and respiratory rates will be remotely monitored. Afterwards, participants will report affect and dissociative states eight times in the laboratory before, during, and after the Trier Social Stress Test. During the laboratory task, we will continuously record heart rate, electrodermal activity, and respiratory rate, as well as measure blood pressure and take salivary samples to determine cortisol levels. Our hypotheses will be tested using multilevel structural equation models. Power analyses determined a sample size of 85. DISCUSSION: The project will test key predictions of a transdiagnostic model of dissociation based on the idea that dissociative reactions are affect contingent and serve affect regulation functions. This project will not include non-clinical control participants. In addition, the assessment of dissociation is limited to pathological phenomena.

Mixed emotions to social situations: An fMRI investigation.

BACKGROUND: Neuroscience research has generally studied emotions each taken in isolation. However, mixed emotional states (e.g., the co-occurrence of amusement and disgust, or sadness and pleasure) are common in everyday life. Psychophysiological and behavioral evidence suggests that mixed emotions may have response profiles that are distinguishable from their constituent emotions. Yet, the brain bases of mixed emotions remain unresolved. METHODS: We recruited 38 healthy adults who viewed short, validated film clips, eliciting either positive (amusing), negative (disgusting), neutral, or mixed (a mix of amusement and disgust) emotional states, while brain activity was assessed by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We assessed mixed emotions in two ways: first by comparing neural reactivity to ambiguous (mixed) with that to unambiguous (positive and negative) film clips and second by conducting parametric analyses to measure neural reactivity with respect to individual emotional states. We thus obtained self-reports of amusement and disgust after each clip and computed a minimum feeling score (shared minimum of amusement and disgust) to quantify mixed emotional feelings. RESULTS: Both analyses revealed a network of the posterior cingulate (PCC), medial superior parietal lobe (SPL)/precuneus, and parieto-occipital sulcus to be involved in ambiguous contexts eliciting mixed emotions. CONCLUSION: Our results are the first to shed light on the dedicated neural processes involved in dynamic social ambiguity processing. They suggest both higher-order (SPL) and lower-order (PCC) processes may be needed to process emotionally complex social scenes.

Effects of two mindfulness based interventions on the distinct phases of the stress response across different physiological systems.

When evaluating the effects of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) on the stress response, several aspects should be considered, such as (1) effects on various response systems, (2) temporal dynamics of the stress response, and (3) differences between programs. This study assesses the stress-attenuating effects of a standard mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and a second-generation MBI: MBSR with elements of other Buddhist practices (MBSR-B). Ninety-nine healthy volunteers were randomly assigned to the MBSR, MBSR-B, or waitlist control groups and their stress response was evaluated with the Trier Social Stress Test. Changes in the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, sympathoadrenomedullary system, the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and affect were measured during distinct phases of the task. Compared to waitlist control, the stress-attenuated effects of MBIs were detected across almost all systems and both negative and positive affect. In the parasympathetic branch of the ANS, the effect of MBIs was present in all stress phases (however, in the recovery phase, only MBSR-B has shown a statistically significant effect in comparison with the waitlist control). The stress-attenuating effects of MBIs were observed already in the anticipatory phase for cortisol, ANS, and negative affect (for negative affect, only the modified MBSR-B program has shown statistically significant effect in comparison with the waitlist control).

Experiential, expressive, and physiological effects of positive and negative emotion regulation goals while reappraising amusing stimuli.

We examined whether positive and negative emotion regulation (ER) goals while cognitively reappraising amusing stimuli differentially engage positive (PA) and negative affect (NA) systems. Forty-eight women watched 20-30 s amusing film clips. They were instructed to either respond naturally (no ER goal) or emphasize the film clips' positive (positive ER goal) or negative (negative ER goal) aspects in their interpretation. We measured PA and NA system activity on experiential, expressive, and physiological response channels through self-reported amusement and disgust, electromyography of zygomaticus major and corrugator supercilii, and autonomic nervous system reactivity from respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and pre-ejection period (PEP). Compared to prefilm baseline activation, natural viewing (no ER goal) of amusing clips increased self-reported amusement (and to a lesser degree disgust), zygomaticus reactivity, and RSA. Compared to no and negative ER goals, reappraising the amusing clips with a positive ER goal decreased corrugator reactivity, decreasing negative emotional expression. Compared to no and positive ER goals, reappraising the amusing clips with a negative ER goal decreased self-reported amusement and zygomaticus reactivity and increased self-reported disgust and corrugator reactivity, decreasing positive and increasing negative emotional experience and expression. We conclude that positive and negative ER goals while reappraising amusing stimuli differentially engaged PA and NA systems: The positive ER goal engaged withdrawal of the expressive NA system, whereas the negative ER goal engaged reciprocal NA-PA system activation on experiential and expressive response channels.

Individual differences in perceived sleep quality do not predict negative affect reactivity or regulation.

Do people who have low-quality sleep tend to have more negative affect? This question is of great public interest, and many would assume the answer is "yes." However, previous findings have been mixed, possibly due to differing measures of sleep and affect, or to a failure to separately examine negative affect reactivity and regulation. Across two studies, we assessed adults' perceived sleep quality for at least two weeks and tested their negative affect reactivity and regulation in response to unpleasant pictures (Study 1) or painful thermal stimulation (Study 2) using both self-report and physiological measures. The relationships between perceived sleep quality, on the one hand, and negative affect reactivity and regulation, on the other, were non-significant. Furthermore, a Bayesian approach unanimously favored the null hypothesis. These results suggest that individual differences in perceived sleep quality may not predict negative affect reactivity or regulation across adult individuals.

Attend or defend? Sex differences in behavioral, autonomic, and respiratory response patterns to emotion-eliciting films.

Sex differences in emotional reactivity have been studied primarily for negative but less so for positive stimuli; likewise, sex differences in the psychophysiological response-patterning during such stimuli are poorly understood. Thus, the present study examined sex differences in response to negative/positive and high/low arousing films (classified as threat-, loss-, achievement-, and recreation-related, vs. neutral films), while measuring 18 muscular, autonomic, and respiratory parameters. Sex differences emerged for all films, but were most prominent for threat-related films: Despite equivalent valence and arousal ratings, women displayed more facial-muscular and respiratory responding than men and pronounced sympathetic activation (preejection period, other cardiovascular and electrodermal measures), while men showed coactivated sympathetic/parasympathetic responding (including increased respiratory sinus arrhythmia). This indicates a prototypical threat-related defense response in women, while men showed a pattern of sustained orienting, which can be understood as a shift toward less threat proximity in the defense cascade model. Clinical implications are discussed within a socio-evolutionary framework.

Understanding Mixed Emotions: Paradigms and Measures.

In this review, we examine the paradigms and measures available for experimentally studying mixed emotions in the laboratory. For eliciting mixed emotions, we describe a mixed emotions film library that allows for the repeated elicitation of a specific homogeneous mixed emotional state and appropriately matched pure positive, pure negative, and neutral emotional states. For assessing mixed emotions, we consider subjective and objective measures that fall into univariate, bivariate, and multivariate measurement categories. As paradigms and measures for objectively studying mixed emotions are still in their early stages, we conclude by outlining future directions that focus on the reliability, temporal dynamics, and response coherence of mixed emotions paradigms and measures. This research will build a strong foundation for future studies and significantly advance our understanding of mixed emotions.

Computational reproducibility of "Goal relevance and goal conduciveness appraisals lead to differential autonomic reactivity in emotional responding to performance feedback" (Kreibig, Gendolla, & Scherer, 2012): A guide and new evidence.

The emerging field of the psychophysiology of motivation bears many new findings, but little replication. Using my own data (Kreibig, Gendolla, & Scherer, 2012), I test the reproducibility of this specific study, provide the necessary materials to make the study reproducible, and instantiate proper reproducibility practices that other researchers can use as a road map toward the same goal. In addition, based on re-analyses of the original data, I report new evidence for the motivational effects of emotional responding to performance feedback. Specifically, greater appraisal of goal relevance amplifies the emotional response to events appraised as conducive (i.e., effort mobilization), but not to those appraised as obstructive to a person's goals (i.e., effort withdrawal). I conclude by providing a ten-step road map of best practices to facilitate computational reproducibility for future studies.

Eliciting positive, negative and mixed emotional states: A film library for affective scientists.

We describe the creation of a film library designed for researchers interested in positive (amusing), negative (repulsive), mixed (amusing and repulsive) and neutral emotional states. Three hundred 20- to 33-second film clips videotaped by amateurs were selected from video-hosting websites and screened in laboratory studies by 75 female participants on self-reported amusement and repulsion (Experiments 1 and 2). On the basis of pre-defined cut-off values, 51 positive, 39 negative, 59 mixed and 50 neutral film clips were selected. These film clips were then presented to 411 male and female participants in a large online study to identify film clips that reliably induced the target emotions (Experiment 3). Depending on the goal of the study, researchers may choose positive, negative, mixed or neutral emotional film clips on the basis of Experiments 1 and 2 or Experiment 3 ratings.

The psychophysiology of mixed emotional states: Internal and external replicability analysis of a direct replication study.

The replicability of emotion-related physiological changes constitutes a fundamental issue in affective science. We undertook a direct replication of the physiological differentiation of amusement, disgust, and a mixed emotional state as previously reported (Kreibig, Samson, & Gross, 2013). In the current study, 48 women watched 54 amusing, disgusting, and mixed emotional film clips while cardiovascular, electrodermal, and respiratory measures were obtained. Primary analyses indicated physiological differentiation of the mixed emotional state from amusement and disgust. We evaluated (a) the probability that future replications of the current study would yield similar results using bootstrapped confidence intervals of effect sizes, and (b) the stability of results of physiological reactivity between actual replications using correlation and regression analyses. Findings suggest replicable differentiation of amusement, disgust, and a mixed emotional state.

Social integration and mortality in patients with coronary heart disease: findings from the Heart and Soul Study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine why lower social integration predicts higher mortality in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD). METHODS: The association between social integration and mortality was examined prospectively in 1019 outpatients with stable CHD from the Heart and Soul Study. Baseline social integration was assessed with the Berkman Social Network Index. Cox proportional hazards models were used to determine the extent to which demographic and disease-relevant confounders and potential biological, behavioral, and psychological mediators explained the association between social integration and mortality. RESULTS: During a mean (standard deviation) follow-up period of 6.7 (2.3) years, the age-adjusted annual rate of mortality was 6.3% among socially isolated patients and 4.1% among nonisolated patients (age-adjusted hazard ratio [HR] = 1.61, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.26-2.05, p < .001). After adjustment for demographic and disease-relevant confounders, socially isolated patients had a 50% greater risk of death than did nonisolated patients (HR = 1.50, 95% CI = 1.07-2.10). Separate adjustment for potential biological (HR = 1.53, CI = 1.05-2.25) and psychological mediators (HR = 1.52, CI = 1.08-2.14) did not significantly attenuate this association, whereas adjustment for potential behavioral mediators did (HR = 1.30, CI = 0.91-1.86). C-reactive protein and hemoglobin A1c were identified as important biological and omega-3 fatty acids, smoking, and medication adherence as important behavioral potential mediators, with smoking making the largest contribution. CONCLUSIONS: In this sample of outpatients with baseline stable CHD, the association between social integration and mortality was largely explained by health-related behavioral pathways, particularly smoking.

The psychophysiology of mixed emotional states.

How to conceptualize mixed emotional states is a central issue in the field of affective science. Nondifferentiation, additive, and emergence accounts of mixed emotions make divergent predictions regarding physiological responses in mixed emotions. To test these predictions, 43 women watched film clips that elicited amusement, disgust, or mixed emotions while feeling self-report, facial electromyography, cardiovascular, electrodermal, and respiratory measures were assessed. Simultaneous self-reports of amusement and disgust confirmed elicitation of a mixed emotional state. Physiologically, mixed emotions differed from pure amusement and pure disgust both in intensity and pattern. This suggests a distinct physiological response of the mixed emotional state, as predicted by the emergence account of mixed emotions. Implications for emotion theory and research are discussed.

Goal relevance and goal conduciveness appraisals lead to differential autonomic reactivity in emotional responding to performance feedback.

Using an appraisal framework, the present experiment tested the hypothesis that goal relevance and goal conduciveness have an interactive effect on emotional responding. We expected that elicitation of positive or negative emotions in response to events that are conducive or obstructive to attainment of one's goals depends on the level of goal relevance. To test this hypothesis, we presented 119 participants with positive (success) or negative (failure) performance feedback of high or low relevance in an achievement context. Feeling self-report showed effects of conduciveness, but no interaction with relevance. Physiological reactivity showed the predicted interaction effect on cardiac autonomic regulation (CAR), with higher CAR for high-relevance conducive than obstructive conditions. Moreover, mean arterial pressure (MAP) and skin conductance level (SCL) differed between conducive and obstructive conditions, and heart rate (HR) and SCL differed between relevance conditions. Implications for the plausibility and current empirical support of the interaction hypothesis are discussed.

Affective modulation of the acoustic startle: does sadness engage the defensive system?

It has been suggested that high arousal negative affective states, but not low arousal negative affective states, potentiate the startle response. Because sadness has generally been studied as a low arousal emotion, it remains unclear whether high arousal sadness would produce startle potentiation to a similar degree as high arousal fear. To address this issue, 32 participants viewed two sets of 10-min film clips selected to induce two affective states of high subjective arousal (fear, sadness) and a neutral state of low subjective arousal, while the eyeblink startle response associated with brief noise bursts was assessed using orbicularis oculi EMG. Larger blink magnitude was found for fearful than for sad or neutral clips. Implications for conceptualizing sadness are discussed.

An affective computing approach to physiological emotion specificity: toward subject-independent and stimulus-independent classification of film-induced emotions.

The hypothesis of physiological emotion specificity has been tested using pattern classification analysis (PCA). To address limitations of prior research using PCA, we studied effects of feature selection (sequential forward selection, sequential backward selection), classifier type (linear and quadratic discriminant analysis, neural networks, k-nearest neighbors method), and cross-validation method (subject- and stimulus-(in)dependence). Analyses were run on a data set of 34 participants watching two sets of three 10-min film clips (fearful, sad, neutral) while autonomic, respiratory, and facial muscle activity were assessed. Results demonstrate that the three states can be classified with high accuracy by most classifiers, with the sparsest model having only five features, even for the most difficult task of identifying the emotion of an unknown subject in an unknown situation (77.5%). Implications for choosing PCA parameters are discussed.

Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: a review.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity is viewed as a major component of the emotion response in many recent theories of emotion. Positions on the degree of specificity of ANS activation in emotion, however, greatly diverge, ranging from undifferentiated arousal, over acknowledgment of strong response idiosyncrasies, to highly specific predictions of autonomic response patterns for certain emotions. A review of 134 publications that report experimental investigations of emotional effects on peripheral physiological responding in healthy individuals suggests considerable ANS response specificity in emotion when considering subtypes of distinct emotions. The importance of sound terminology of investigated affective states as well as of choice of physiological measures in assessing ANS reactivity is discussed.