[Non-directivity as a guiding category in human genetic counselling in a historical perspective]. / Nicht-Direktivität als Leitkategorie in der humangenetischen Beratung in zeithistorischer Betrachtung.

In this article we describe and analyse the issue of non-directivity in human genetic counselling in Germany between 1970 and 2010 based on printed sources and oral history interviews. The focus is on the extent to which the ethical aspects in genetic counselling were debated among human geneticists and to what extent aspects of non-directivity were discussed.As the results show, it was not only in retrospect that experts attributed great importance to the autonomy of those seeking advice and rejected "directive" advice, at least in public positions. They considered ethical justification to be central here.

[Oral history of German human genetics: historical research methods for collecting and processing narrative interviews]. / Oral-History-Projekt Humangenetik: Historische Forschungsmethode zur Erhebung und Weiterverarbeitung narrativer Interviews.

Between 2016 and 2018, interviews with 33 persons were conducted about the history of human genetics in Germany between 1970 and the 2000s. 29 interviewees gave consent to have the interviews used for historical research. These interviews are currently being analysed with the methods of qualitative content analysis and grounded theory. The focus of this article lies on the critical examination of the method of oral history and its application to human genetics. The oral history project focuses on questions regarding (1) biographical data and careers of interviewees, (2) development and application of diagnostic and therapeutic techniques, (3) establishment and growth of institutions of human genetics and (4) social debates regarding the discipline.

[Historical awareness and historical responsibility in German human genetics]. / Geschichtsbewusstsein und historische Verantwortung in der deutschen Humangenetik.

Historians have repeatedly pointed to personal and institutional continuities between eugenics in Germany before 1945 and the developing human genetics in post-war Germany. But how was this external perception discussed among German human geneticists and did it play a role in the discipline's self-image? On the basis of printed sources and biographical interviews, the historical consciousness and the assumption of historical responsibility among German human geneticists active in the field between the 1970s and the 2010s were investigated. In the memories of the contemporary witnesses, historical awareness played a role for their discipline even before the 1980s, and since the founding of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Humangenetik in 1987, the question of the form of showing historical responsibility has been discussed repeatedly. It has been expressed, for example, in discussions with the public and renaming of prizes.

["Rohleder was one of the first to fully realize the importance of sexology." : Life and work of the venereologist, urologist, and sexologist Hermann Rohleder (1866-1934)]. / "Rohleder gehört zu den ersten, welche die Bedeutung der Sexualwissenschaft in ihrem vollen Umfange erkannt haben." : Leben und Werk des Venerologen, Urologen und Sexualmediziners Hermann Rohleder (1866­1934).

His contemporaries described Hermann Rohleder, a physician from Leipzig, as a pioneer of sexual medicine. His career led him from treating patients with venereal diseases to urology and sexology. Rohleder worked for the institutionalization of sexology in Germany, but his attempts to establish a professorship at the University of Leipzig remained unsuccessful. Rohleder's life and work illustrate how closely the disciplines of urology and sexology were connected in the early 20th century.

[Carl Posner (1854-1928) : A founder of urology and sexology in Germany]. / Carl Posner (1854­1928) : Ein Begründer der Urologie und Sexualwissenschaft in Deutschland.

In this contribution we describe the life and work of the Berlin physician Carl Posner (1854-1928). We present his central role as a member of the founding generation of urology, andrology, and academic sexology in Germany. His clinical work, research and publication illustrate the central role these new disciplines played in the urological field. Finally, we describe how Posner is remembered in the history of urology and sexology.

[The 69th Congress-urologists nominated for the Nobel Prize : Not everyone got a prize: four biographical sketches]. / Zum 69. Kongress ­ Urologen waren für den Nobelpreis nominiert : Preise gab es nicht für alle: Vier biographische Skizzen.

Our research group has reconstructed why the board certified urologists Werner Forssmann (1904-1979) and Charles Huggins (1901-1997) received the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine (1956, and 1966, respectively). But the history of "Urology and the Nobel Prize" is in fact more multifaceted than the success stories of these two laureates suggest. James Israel (1848-1926), Berlin, Félix Guyon (1831-1920), Paris, Peter J. Freyer (1852-1921), London and Edwin Beer (1876-1938), New York were nominated for the award during the first three decades of the 20th century. Their candidacies mirror trends among leading urologists during the time when urology became a specialty in its own right.

[Establishment of university departments of urology in North Rhine-Westphalia: the Aachen model]. / Etablierung von Urologischen Universitätskliniken in NRW : Das Aachener Modell.

The foundation of university departments of urology in postwar East and West Germany faced some opposition by some university professors of surgery who wanted to preserve the unity of their discipline. In North Rhine-Westphalia, heads of municipal hospitals or senior members of university hospitals' staff often received the first chaired professorships of urology.

[The German Society of Urology in the immediate post-war era: continuities and disruptions (1945-1961)]. / Die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Urologie in der unmittelbaren Nachkriegszeit : Kontinuitäten und Brüche (1945-1961).

This article outlines the handling by the German Society of Urology (DGU) of its own history between 1945 and 1961. Topics include the re-formation of the society in 1949, the official disbandment of the pre-war society in 1955, the handling of the history of the Nazi era professional society and the close connections between East and West German urologists. Finally, the establishment of an institutional interpretation of history will be examined.

[German Urological Associations under National Socialism]. / Die 1907 gegründete "Deutsche Gesellschaft für Urologie" und die "Gesellschaft Reichsdeutscher Urologen" im Nationalsozialismus.

The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Urologie (German Urological Association), established in 1907, was a German-Austrian medical society in which Jewish physicians held important positions. When the Nazis seized power in 1933, the Austrian Hans Rubritius was president of the society. The non-German presidency and the exclusion of Jewish colleagues from the professional society and medical practice led to a halt of the society's activities. At the same time in the mid 1930s, German urologists founded the Gesellschaft Reichsdeutscher Urologen (Association of Reichs-German Urologists) whose members aligned themselves with Nazi health policies and in turn received professional and personal benefits.

[Urology and National Socialism. Paul Rosenstein 1875-1964, the disrupted biography of a Jewish urologist]. / Urologie und Nationalsozialismus. Paul Rosenstein 1875-1964 - zerrissene Biographie eines jüdischern Urologen.

The biography of Paul Rosenstein (1875-1964) serves as an example of the fate of a Jewish scientist at the beginning of the twentieth century in an area of conflict between the development of urology as a specialty at greater urban hospitals, professional achievements as a surgeon and scientist, drastic breaks during Nazi era and escape from Nazi terror via New York to Brazil.

[The portrayal of tuberculosis in the motion picture "Robert Koch--Bekämpfer des Todes". How do movies shape knowledge about diseases in urology and medicine?]. / Das Bild der Tuberkulose im Film "Robert Koch--Bekämpfer des Todes". Wie formen Filme das Wissen um Erkrankungen in Urologie und Medizin?

Popular media have an immediate effect on an audience of millions. They are the base of social learning through the times. Therefore they deserve greater attention from professionals. The Nazi propaganda for example created an elaborate system, which made use of new technologies of the twentieth century, especially radio broadcasting and the movies. Escapism should be produced. Up to now those movies are shown on TV or in the cinema often without reference to their origin and intention which were later on regarded as harmless. As a consequence, "propaganda" is maintained in a very distinguished way. In 1945, the Allies first banned the showing of films made during the Nazi era and confiscated important documents. Those films regarded as "harmless" were soon released to the public again, but in the 1950s some 250 politically dubious films were still under lock and key. Interestingly, they often can be received via the Internet from other countries especially the USA. It only became clear over time that the propagandistic aims that found expression in some 1,100 films needed to be examined more carefully.

[Research perspectives on the history of urology in Germany, 1933-1945]. / Forschungsperspektiven zur Geschichte der Urologie in Deutschland, 1933-1945.

Between 1933 and 1945, German medical practitioners were easily persuaded to align themselves with Nazi ideology. Jewish urologists were forced out of academia, editorial boards of medical journals and medical practice. Like most German physicians, urologists quickly accepted their new role as caretakers of public health instead of individual patients' wellbeing. The specialty of urology profited from this collaboration with Nazi policies as it gained further independence.

[Urology and National Socialism: the fate of Alexander von Lichtenberg 1880-1949]. / Urologie und Nationalsozialismus : Alexander von Lichtenberg 1880-1949.

Alexander von Lichtenberg (1880-1949) was one of the famous members of the German Urological Society (DGU) in pre-war Germany. He introduced excretion urography and a special TURP Instrument. In 1928 he was president of the 8th meeting held in the German capital Berlin. His Handbook of Urology, released by Ferdinand Springer publishing house, was a trendsetter in establishing urology as a specialty in Germany and bringing together the whole wisdom of all aspects of urology. He was the founder of the famous Maximilian Nitze Award of the DGU. As a Jew he-like many others-was forced to leave Nazi Germany after 1933. Even in Hungary, his native country, he again had to resist anti-Semitic hostility. Later on he lived in Mexico. Alexander von Lichtenberg has to be remembered with special focus on the exodus of German Jewish scientists during the Nazi time.

["My first encounter with German urology (1937)". Stefan Wesolowski (1908-2009) - a source in the archives of the German Society for Urology from the oldest corresponding member and promoter of Polish-German relationships]. / "Meine erste Begegnung mit der deutschen Urologie (1937)". Stefan Wesolowski (1908-2009) - Eine Quelle im Archiv der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Urologie vom ältesten korrespondierenden Mitglied und Förderer polnisch-deutscher Beziehungen.

A source in the archives of the German Society of Urology gives us a vivid insight into the situation in Berlin during the 1930s from the perspective of a young Polish doctor, and presents the situation at one of the leading urology institutions of the time in Germany. Furthermore, we learn about the social situation in hospitals as well as the discourse and networking taking place in the scientific community at that time.