Defining genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, epigenetic, and phenotypic biomarkers with prognostic capability in male breast cancer: a systematic review.

Although similar phenotypically, there is evidence that male and female breast cancer differ in their molecular landscapes. In this systematic review, we consolidated all existing prognostic biomarker data in male breast cancer spanning genetics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and epigenetics, and phenotypic features of prognostic value from articles published over a 29-year period (March 16, 1992, to May 1, 2021). We identified knowledge gaps in the existing literature, discussed limitations of the included studies, and outlined potential approaches for translational biomarker discovery and validation in male breast cancer. We also recognised STC2, DDX3, and DACH1 as underexploited markers of male-specific prognostic value in breast cancer. Finally, beyond describing the cumulative knowledge on the extensively researched markers oestrogen receptor-α, progesterone receptor, HER2, androgen receptor, and BRCA2, we highlighted ATM, CCND1, FGFR2, GATA3, HIF1-α, MDM2, TP53, and c-Myc as well studied predictors of poor survival that also aligned with several hallmarks of cancer.

Raman spectroscopy: current applications in breast cancer diagnosis, challenges and future prospects.

Despite significant improvements in the way breast cancer is managed and treated, it continues to persist as a leading cause of death worldwide. If detected and diagnosed early, when tumours are small and localised, there is a considerably higher chance of survival. However, current methods for detection and diagnosis lack the required sensitivity and specificity for identifying breast cancer at the asymptomatic or very early stages. Thus, there is a need to develop more rapid and reliable methods, capable of detecting disease earlier, for improved disease management and patient outcome. Raman spectroscopy is a non-destructive analytical technique that can rapidly provide highly specific information on the biochemical composition and molecular structure of samples. In cancer, it has the capacity to probe very early biochemical changes that accompany malignant transformation, even prior to the onset of morphological changes, to produce a fingerprint of disease. This review explores the application of Raman spectroscopy in breast cancer, including discussion on its capabilities in analysing both ex-vivo tissue and liquid biopsy samples, and its potential in vivo applications. The review also addresses current challenges and potential future uses of this technology in cancer research and translational clinical application.