Machines matter too: including biomedical engineering partnerships in global health initiatives.

As the global burden of disease shifts from communicable to non-communicable diseases and trauma-related debility, the global health-care community has increasingly advocated for equitable access to surgical services. Much of this attention has focused on bolstering clinical and research expertise through the expansion of clinical training programmes and research resources. However, despite the crucial role of equipment, including medical devices, in safe clinical care, comparatively little attention has been paid to sustainably bridging the biomedical and technical gaps that exist in global health. Although closing these gaps with locally driven solutions is the goal, the reality in many settings is that partnerships between institutions in high-income countries and low-income and middle-income countries currently remain necessary. Thus, this Viewpoint provides guidelines conscious to biomedical engineering for institutions looking to expand or begin global health initiatives with the Partners In Health Five S's-staff, stuff, space, systems, and social support-framework for health systems strengthening as a guide. We focus first on initiatives involving staff, stuff, and space, encouraging institutions to ask, listen, and enable, through a set of questions and actionable recommendations. Then, we urge institutions to strengthen systems and social support, underscoring the need for wider societal scaffolding to support and sustain initiatives beyond initial efforts.

Paediatric chronic pain prevalence in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Chronic pain is a leading cause of morbidity in children and adolescents globally, with a significant impact on quality of life. This is the first systematic review and meta-analysis on paediatric chronic pain in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). METHODS: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we searched MEDLINE (via PubMed), Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Web of Science, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and the WHO Global Index Medicus for all studies published prior to January 7, 2022. Articles published in all languages that included populations age 19 years and under living in LMICs were considered. Chronic pain was defined as persistent or recurrent pain that is present for ≥3 months, per the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) definition. Summary data were extracted from published reports and evaluated with mixed-effects regression analysis. PROSPERO Record ID: CRD42021227967. FINDINGS: Of the 2875 studies identified, 70 articles were reviewed, with 27 studies representing 20 LMICs eligible for analysis. The average prevalence for each pain type reported with 95% confidence interval is as follows: general/multi-site/any 20% (16-25), musculoskeletal (MSK) pain 9% (7-13), abdominal pain 7% (5-10), headache 4% (2-10), and fibromyalgia per American College of Rheumatology or Yunus and Masi criteria 3% (1-10). Overall, a pooled mean of 8% chronic pain was estimated across all studies. A significantly high level of heterogeneity was found across all studies (I2  >90%). Chronic headache (OR=1·65, 95% CI 1·39-1·96), abdominal pain (OR=1·36, 95% CI 1·22-1·51), and generalized/multi-site pain (OR=1·54, 95% CI 1·31-1·81) were significantly more prevalent in females than males. INTERPRETATION: The characterization of paediatric chronic pain in low- and middle-income countries suffers from a paucity of data and significant heterogeneity in the assessment methods. Understanding the global burden of chronic pain in this group should be prioritized. FUNDING: None.

Evolution in the Practice of Pediatric Endoscopy and Sedation.

The fields of pediatric gastrointestinal endoscopy and sedation are critically important to the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) disease in children. Since its inception in the 1970s, pediatric endoscopy has benefitted from tremendous technological innovation related to the design of the endoscope and its associated equipment. Not only that, but expertise among pediatric gastroenterologists has moved the field forward to include a full complement of diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopic procedures in children. In this review, we discuss the remarkable history of pediatric endoscopy and highlight current limitations and future advances in the practice and technology of pediatric endoscopy and sedation.

An Assessment of Anesthesia Capacity in Liberia: Opportunities for Rebuilding Post-Ebola.

BACKGROUND: The health system of Liberia, a low-income country in West Africa, was devastated by a civil war lasting from 1989 to 2003. Gains made in the post-war period were compromised by the 2014-2016 Ebola epidemic. The already fragile health system experienced worsening of health indicators, including an estimated 111% increase in the country's maternal mortality rate post-Ebola. Access to safe surgery is necessary for improvement of these metrics, yet data on surgical and anesthesia capacity in Liberia post-Ebola are sparse. The aim of this study was to describe anesthesia capacity in Liberia post-Ebola as part of the development of a National Surgical, Obstetric, and Anesthesia Plan (NSOAP). METHODS: Using the World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists (WFSA) Anaesthesia Facility Assessment Tool (AFAT), we conducted a cross-sectional survey of 26 of 32 Ministry of Health recognized hospitals that provide surgical care in Liberia. The surveyed hospitals served approximately 90% of the Liberian population. This assessment surveyed infrastructure, workforce, service delivery, information management, medications, and equipment and was performed between July and September 2019. Researchers obtained data from interviews with anesthesia department heads, medical directors and through direct site visits where possible. RESULTS: Anesthesiologist and nurse anesthetist workforce densities were 0.02 and 1.56 per 100,000 population, respectively, compared to 0.63 surgeons per 100,000 population and 0.52 obstetricians/gynecologists per 100,000 population. On average, there were 2 functioning operating rooms (ORs; OR in working condition that can be used for patient care) per hospital (standard deviation [SD] = 0.79; range, 1-3). Half of the hospitals surveyed had a postanesthesia care unit (PACU) and intensive care unit (ICU); however, only 1 hospital had mechanical ventilation capacity in the ICU. Ketamine and lidocaine were widely available. Intravenous (IV) morphine was always available in only 6 hospitals. None of the hospitals surveyed completely met the minimum World Health Organization (WHO)-WFSA standards for health care facilities where surgery and anesthesia are provided. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, we noted several critical gaps in anesthesia and surgical capacity in Liberia, in spite of the massive global response post-Ebola directed toward health system development. Further investment across all domains is necessary to attain minimum international standards and to facilitate the provision of safe surgery and anesthesia in Liberia. The study results will be considered in development of an NSOAP for Liberia.

The Preparing Residents for International Medical Experiences (PRIME) Simulation Workshop: Equipping Surgery and Anesthesia Trainees for International Rotations.

Introduction: Although global health training expands clinical and sociocultural expertise for graduate medical trainees and is increasingly in demand, evidence-based courses are limited. To improve self-assessed competence for clinical scenarios encountered during international rotations, we developed and assessed a simulation-based workshop called Preparing Residents for International Medical Experiences. Methods: High-fidelity simulation activities for anesthesiology, surgery, and OB/GYN trainees involved three scenarios. The first was a mass casualty in a low-resource setting requiring distribution of human and material resources. In the second, learners managed a septic operative patient and coordinated postoperative care without an ICU bed available. The final scenario had learners evaluate a non-English-speaking patient with pre-eclampsia. We paired simulation with small-group discussion to address sociobehavioral factors, stress, and teaching skills. Participants evaluated the quality of the teaching provided. In addition, we measured anesthesiology trainees' self-assessed competence before and after the workshop. Results: The workshop included 23 learners over two iterations. Fifteen trainees (65%) completed the course evaluation, 93% of whom strongly agreed that the training met the stated objectives. Thirteen out of 15 (87%) anesthesiology trainees completed the competence survey. After the training, more trainees indicated confidence in providing clinical care with indirect supervision or independently. Mean self-assessed competency scores on a scale of 1-5 increased for all areas, with a mean competency increase of 0.3 (95% CI, 0.2-0.5). Discussion: Including simulation in a pretravel workshop can improve trainees' self-assessed competence for a variety of scenarios involving clinical care in limited-resource settings.

Pediatric Anesthesia Specialty Societies and Multi-Institutional Collaborations.

Pediatric anesthesiology is a subspecialty of anesthesiology that deals with the high-risk pediatric population. The specialty has made significant advancement in large collaborative efforts to study and increase patient safety, including the creation of international societies, a dedicated journal, special committees and interest groups, and multi-institution databases for research and quality improvement. Readily available resources were created to help with the education of future pediatric anesthesiologists as well as continuing medical education. Conclusions: Specialty societies and collaborations in pediatric anesthesia are crucial for continuous improvement in the care of children. They promote research, education, quality improvement, and advocacy at the local, national, and international level.

Epidurals for Coarctation Repair in Children Are Associated with Decreased Postoperative Anti-Hypertensive Infusion Requirement as Measured by a Novel Parameter, the Anti-Hypertensive Dosing Index (ADI).

BACKGROUND: Sympathetically-associated hypertension after coarctation repair is a common problem often requiring anti-hypertensive infusions in an intensive care unit. Epidurals suppress sympathetic output and can reduce blood pressure but have not been studied following coarctation repair in children. We sought to determine whether epidurals for coarctation repair in children were associated with decreased requirement for postoperative anti-hypertensive infusions, if they were associated with changes in hospital course, or with complications. METHODS: In this observational retrospective cohort study, we evaluated all patients age 1-18 years undergoing coarctation repair at our institution during a 10-year period and compared the requirement for postoperative anti-hypertensive infusions in patients with and without epidurals using an anti-hypertensive dosing index (ADI) incorporating total dose-hours of all anti-hypertensive infusions (primary outcome). We also assessed intensive care unit (ICU) and hospital length of stay, discharge on oral anti-hypertensive medication, and complications potentially related to epidurals (secondary outcomes). RESULTS: Children undergoing coarctation repair with epidurals had decreased requirements for postoperative anti-hypertensive infusions compared to children without epidurals (cumulative ADI 65.0 [28.5-130.3] v. 157.0 [68.6-214.7], p = 0.021; mean ADI 49.0 [33.3-131.2] v. 163.0 [66.6-209.8], p = 0.01). After multivariable cumulative logit mixed-effects regression analysis, mean ADI was decreased in patients with epidurals throughout the postoperative period (p < 0.001). Patients with epidurals were 1.6 years older and weighed 10.6 kg more than patients without epidurals but were otherwise comparable. Epidural complications included pruritus (three patients), agitation (one patient), somnolence (one patient), and transient orthostatic hypotension (one patient). Duration of intensive care unit admission, duration of hospital stays, and requirement for anti-hypertensive medication at discharge were similar in patients with and without epidurals. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study of children receiving an epidural for surgical repair of aortic coarctation via open thoracotomy. In this small, single-institution, observational retrospective cohort study, epidurals for coarctation repair in children were associated with decreased postoperative anti-hypertensive infusion requirements. Epidurals were not associated with length of ICU or hospital stay, or with discharge on anti-hypertensive medication. No significant epidural complications were noted. Prospective study of larger populations will be necessary to confirm these associations, address causality, verify safety, and assess other effects.

Multidisciplinary Perioperative Care for Children with Neuromuscular Disorders.

Children with neuromuscular diseases present unique challenges to providing safe and appropriate perioperative care. Given the spectrum of disease etiologies and manifestations, this is a population that often requires specialized multidisciplinary care from pediatricians, geneticists, neurologists, dieticians, and pulmonologists which must also be coordinated with surgeons and anesthesiologists when these patients present for surgery. Several of these diseases also have specific pharmacologic implications for anesthesia, most notably mitochondrial disease and muscular dystrophies, which put them at additional risk during the perioperative period particularly in patients presenting without a formal diagnosis. Techniques and strategies to fully evaluate and optimize these patients preoperatively, manage them safely intraoperatively, and return them to their baseline status postoperative are particularly important in this vulnerable group of patients. Utilizing a review of inherited neuromuscular conditions, generalized perioperative concerns, and specific complications related to anesthesia, this article provides an overview of pertinent considerations and recommends a framework for management of these patients.

Chronic Pediatric Pain in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

Chronic pain is a serious health concern and potentially debilitating condition, leading to anxiety, depression, reduced productivity and functionality, and poor quality of life. This condition can be even more detrimental and incapacitating in the pediatric patient population. In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), pain services are often inadequate or unavailable, leaving most of the world's pediatric population with chronic pain untreated. Many of these children in LMICs are suffering without treatment, and often die in pain. Awareness and advocacy for this population must be prioritized. We reviewed the available literature on the chronic pediatric pain burden in LMICs, barriers to treatments, and current efforts to treat these patients.

A profile of surgical burden and anaesthesia services at Mozambique's Central Hospital: A review.

BACKGROUND: Surgical and anaesthesia data, including outcomes, remain limited in low-income countries (LIC). This study reviews the surgical burden and anaesthesia services at a tertiary care hospital in Mozambique. METHODS: Information on activities within the department of anaesthesia at Maputo Central Hospital for 2014-15 was collected from its annual report and verified by the Chairman of Anaesthesia. Personnel information and health care metrics for the hospital in 2015 were collected and verified by hospital leadership. RESULTS: Maputo Central Hospital has 1423 beds with 50.1% allocated to primary surgical services. 39.7% of total admissions were to surgical services, and in 2015 the hospital performed 10,049 major operations requiring anaesthesia. The OB/GYN service had the most operations with 2894 (28.8%), followed by general surgery (1665, 16.6%). Inpatient surgical mortality was 4.1% and surgical-related diagnoses comprised two of the top 9 causes of death, with malignant neoplasms and hemorrhage from trauma causing the highest mortality. In 2014-15, Maputo Central Hospital employed 15 anesthesiologists, with 4 advanced and 23 basic mid-level anaesthesia providers. Of 10,897 total anaesthesia cases in 2014, 6954 were general anaesthesia and 3925 were neuraxial anaesthesia. Other anaesthesia services included chronic pain and intensive care consultation. Anaesthesia department leadership noted a strong desire to improve data collection and analysis for anaesthesia outcomes and complications, requested an additional administrator for statistical analysis. DISCUSSION: This profile of anaesthesia services at a large tertiary hospital in Mozambique highlights several features of anaesthesia care and surgical burden in LICs, including challenges of resource limitations, patient comorbidity, and social dynamics present in Mozambique that contribute to prolonged hospital stays. As noted, enhanced data collection and analysis within the department and the hospital may be useful in identifying strategies to improve outcomes and patient safety.

Guidelines and checklists for short-term missions in global pediatric surgery: Recommendations from the American Academy of Pediatrics Delivery of Surgical Care Global Health Subcommittee, American Pediatric Surgical Association Global Pediatric Surgery Committee, Society for Pediatric Anesthesia Committee on International Education and Service, and American Pediatric Surgical Nurses Association, Inc. Global Health Special Interest Group.

INTRODUCTION: Pediatric surgeons, anesthesia providers, and nurses from North America and other high-income countries (HICs) are increasingly engaged in resource-limited areas, with short-term missions (STMs) as the most common form of involvement. However, consensus recommendations currently do not exist for STMs in pediatric general surgery and associated perioperative care. METHODS: The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Delivery of Surgical Care Subcommittee and American Pediatric Surgical Association (APSA) Global Pediatric Surgery Committee, with the American Pediatric Surgical Nurses Association, Inc. (APSNA) Global Health Special Interest Group, and the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia (SPA) Committee on International Education and Service generated consensus recommendations for STMs based on extensive experience with STMs. RESULTS: Three distinct, but related areas were identified: 1) Broad goals of surgical partnerships between HICs- and low and middle-income countries (LMICs). A previous set of guidelines published by the Global Paediatric Surgery Network Collaborative (GPSN), was endorsed by all groups; 2) Guidelines for the conduct of STMs were developed, including planning, in-country perioperative patient care, post-trip follow-up, and sustainability; 3) travel and safety considerations critical to STM success were enumerated. CONCLUSION: A diverse group of stakeholders developed these guidelines for STMs in LMICs. These guidelines may be a useful tool to ensure safe, responsible, and ethical STMs given increasing engagement of HIC providers in this work. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 5.

Surgical Outreach for Children by International Humanitarian Organizations: A Review.

Low- and middle-income countries carry a disproportionate share of the global burden of pediatric surgical disease and have limited local healthcare infrastructure and human resources to address this burden. Humanitarian efforts that have improved or provided access to necessary basic or emergency surgery for children in these settings have included humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, short-term surgical missions, and long-term projects such as building pediatric specialty hospitals and provider networks. Each of these efforts may also include educational initiatives designed to increase local capacity. This article will provide an overview of pediatric humanitarian surgical outreach including reference to available evidence-based analyses of these platforms and make recommendations for surgical outreach initiatives for children.

An analysis of risk factors for patient complaints about ambulatory anesthesiology care.

BACKGROUND: Anesthesiology groups continually seek data sources and evaluation metrics for ongoing professional practice evaluation, credentialing, and other quality initiatives. The analysis of patient complaints associated with physicians has been previously shown to be a marker for patient dissatisfaction and a predictor of malpractice claims. Additionally, previous studies in other specialties have revealed a nonuniform distribution of complaints among professionals. In this study, we describe the distribution of complaints among anesthesia providers and identify factors associated with complaint risk in pediatric and adult populations. METHODS: We performed an analysis of a complaint database for an academic medical center. Complaints were recorded as comments during postoperative telephone calls to ambulatory surgery patients regarding the quality of their anesthesiology care. Calls between July 1, 2006 and June 30, 2010 were included. Risk factors were grouped into 3 categories: patient demographics, procedural, and provider characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 22,871 calls placed on behalf of 120 anesthesiologists were evaluated, of which 307 yielded a complaint. There was no evidence of provider-to-provider heterogeneity in complaint risk in the pediatric population. In the adult population, an unadjusted test for the random intercept variance component in the mixed effects model pointed toward significant heterogeneity (P = 0.01); however, after adjusting for a prespecified set of risk factors, provider-to-provider heterogeneity was no longer observed (P = 0.20). Several risk factors exhibited evidence for complaint risk. In the pediatric patient model, risk factors associated with complaint risk included a 10-year change in age, the use of general anesthesia (versus not), and a 1-hour change in the actual minus scheduled start times. Odds ratios were 1.47 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.04-2.08), 0.22 (95% CI, 0.07-0.62), and 1.27 (95% CI, 1.10-1.47), respectively. In the adult patient model, risk factors associated with complaint risk included male gender, general anesthesia, a 10-year change in provider experience, and speaking with the patient (rather than a family member). Odd ratios were 0.66 (95% CI, 0.47-0.92), 0.67 (95% CI, 0.47-0.95), 1.18 (95% CI, 1.01-1.38), and 1.96 (95% CI, 1.17-3.29), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: There was apparent evidence in adult patients to suggest heterogeneity in provider risk for a patient complaint. However, once patient, procedural, and provider factors were acknowledged in analyses, such evidence for heterogeneity is diminished substantially. Further study into how and why these factors are associated with greater complaint risk may reveal potential interventions to decrease complaints.

Ruptured appendicitis presenting as acute scrotal swelling in a 23-month-old toddler.

BACKGROUND: Acute appendicitis is a common disease process in which timely diagnosis minimizes the risk of complications. OBJECTIVES: This case illustrates one example of the range of clinical presentations of young children with acute appendicitis. CASE REPORT: We describe a case in a young child presenting with an inguinal and scrotal mass that was ultimately due to perforated appendicitis with abscess formation. CONCLUSIONS: In the emergency department evaluation of these children with inguinal or scrotal complaints, we maintain that intra-abdominal processes should be included in the differential.