Correction: The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.5334/aogh.4056.].

The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health.

Background: Plastics have conveyed great benefits to humanity and made possible some of the most significant advances of modern civilization in fields as diverse as medicine, electronics, aerospace, construction, food packaging, and sports. It is now clear, however, that plastics are also responsible for significant harms to human health, the economy, and the earth's environment. These harms occur at every stage of the plastic life cycle, from extraction of the coal, oil, and gas that are its main feedstocks through to ultimate disposal into the environment. The extent of these harms not been systematically assessed, their magnitude not fully quantified, and their economic costs not comprehensively counted. Goals: The goals of this Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health are to comprehensively examine plastics' impacts across their life cycle on: (1) human health and well-being; (2) the global environment, especially the ocean; (3) the economy; and (4) vulnerable populations-the poor, minorities, and the world's children. On the basis of this examination, the Commission offers science-based recommendations designed to support development of a Global Plastics Treaty, protect human health, and save lives. Report Structure: This Commission report contains seven Sections. Following an Introduction, Section 2 presents a narrative review of the processes involved in plastic production, use, and disposal and notes the hazards to human health and the environment associated with each of these stages. Section 3 describes plastics' impacts on the ocean and notes the potential for plastic in the ocean to enter the marine food web and result in human exposure. Section 4 details plastics' impacts on human health. Section 5 presents a first-order estimate of plastics' health-related economic costs. Section 6 examines the intersection between plastic, social inequity, and environmental injustice. Section 7 presents the Commission's findings and recommendations. Plastics: Plastics are complex, highly heterogeneous, synthetic chemical materials. Over 98% of plastics are produced from fossil carbon- coal, oil and gas. Plastics are comprised of a carbon-based polymer backbone and thousands of additional chemicals that are incorporated into polymers to convey specific properties such as color, flexibility, stability, water repellence, flame retardation, and ultraviolet resistance. Many of these added chemicals are highly toxic. They include carcinogens, neurotoxicants and endocrine disruptors such as phthalates, bisphenols, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), brominated flame retardants, and organophosphate flame retardants. They are integral components of plastic and are responsible for many of plastics' harms to human health and the environment.Global plastic production has increased almost exponentially since World War II, and in this time more than 8,300 megatons (Mt) of plastic have been manufactured. Annual production volume has grown from under 2 Mt in 1950 to 460 Mt in 2019, a 230-fold increase, and is on track to triple by 2060. More than half of all plastic ever made has been produced since 2002. Single-use plastics account for 35-40% of current plastic production and represent the most rapidly growing segment of plastic manufacture.Explosive recent growth in plastics production reflects a deliberate pivot by the integrated multinational fossil-carbon corporations that produce coal, oil and gas and that also manufacture plastics. These corporations are reducing their production of fossil fuels and increasing plastics manufacture. The two principal factors responsible for this pivot are decreasing global demand for carbon-based fuels due to increases in 'green' energy, and massive expansion of oil and gas production due to fracking.Plastic manufacture is energy-intensive and contributes significantly to climate change. At present, plastic production is responsible for an estimated 3.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the contribution of Brazil. This fraction is projected to increase to 4.5% by 2060 if current trends continue unchecked. Plastic Life Cycle: The plastic life cycle has three phases: production, use, and disposal. In production, carbon feedstocks-coal, gas, and oil-are transformed through energy-intensive, catalytic processes into a vast array of products. Plastic use occurs in every aspect of modern life and results in widespread human exposure to the chemicals contained in plastic. Single-use plastics constitute the largest portion of current use, followed by synthetic fibers and construction.Plastic disposal is highly inefficient, with recovery and recycling rates below 10% globally. The result is that an estimated 22 Mt of plastic waste enters the environment each year, much of it single-use plastic and are added to the more than 6 gigatons of plastic waste that have accumulated since 1950. Strategies for disposal of plastic waste include controlled and uncontrolled landfilling, open burning, thermal conversion, and export. Vast quantities of plastic waste are exported each year from high-income to low-income countries, where it accumulates in landfills, pollutes air and water, degrades vital ecosystems, befouls beaches and estuaries, and harms human health-environmental injustice on a global scale. Plastic-laden e-waste is particularly problematic. Environmental Findings: Plastics and plastic-associated chemicals are responsible for widespread pollution. They contaminate aquatic (marine and freshwater), terrestrial, and atmospheric environments globally. The ocean is the ultimate destination for much plastic, and plastics are found throughout the ocean, including coastal regions, the sea surface, the deep sea, and polar sea ice. Many plastics appear to resist breakdown in the ocean and could persist in the global environment for decades. Macro- and micro-plastic particles have been identified in hundreds of marine species in all major taxa, including species consumed by humans. Trophic transfer of microplastic particles and the chemicals within them has been demonstrated. Although microplastic particles themselves (>10 µm) appear not to undergo biomagnification, hydrophobic plastic-associated chemicals bioaccumulate in marine animals and biomagnify in marine food webs. The amounts and fates of smaller microplastic and nanoplastic particles (MNPs <10 µm) in aquatic environments are poorly understood, but the potential for harm is worrying given their mobility in biological systems. Adverse environmental impacts of plastic pollution occur at multiple levels from molecular and biochemical to population and ecosystem. MNP contamination of seafood results in direct, though not well quantified, human exposure to plastics and plastic-associated chemicals. Marine plastic pollution endangers the ocean ecosystems upon which all humanity depends for food, oxygen, livelihood, and well-being. Human Health Findings: Coal miners, oil workers and gas field workers who extract fossil carbon feedstocks for plastic production suffer increased mortality from traumatic injury, coal workers' pneumoconiosis, silicosis, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. Plastic production workers are at increased risk of leukemia, lymphoma, hepatic angiosarcoma, brain cancer, breast cancer, mesothelioma, neurotoxic injury, and decreased fertility. Workers producing plastic textiles die of bladder cancer, lung cancer, mesothelioma, and interstitial lung disease at increased rates. Plastic recycling workers have increased rates of cardiovascular disease, toxic metal poisoning, neuropathy, and lung cancer. Residents of "fenceline" communities adjacent to plastic production and waste disposal sites experience increased risks of premature birth, low birth weight, asthma, childhood leukemia, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer.During use and also in disposal, plastics release toxic chemicals including additives and residual monomers into the environment and into people. National biomonitoring surveys in the USA document population-wide exposures to these chemicals. Plastic additives disrupt endocrine function and increase risk for premature births, neurodevelopmental disorders, male reproductive birth defects, infertility, obesity, cardiovascular disease, renal disease, and cancers. Chemical-laden MNPs formed through the environmental degradation of plastic waste can enter living organisms, including humans. Emerging, albeit still incomplete evidence indicates that MNPs may cause toxicity due to their physical and toxicological effects as well as by acting as vectors that transport toxic chemicals and bacterial pathogens into tissues and cells.Infants in the womb and young children are two populations at particularly high risk of plastic-related health effects. Because of the exquisite sensitivity of early development to hazardous chemicals and children's unique patterns of exposure, plastic-associated exposures are linked to increased risks of prematurity, stillbirth, low birth weight, birth defects of the reproductive organs, neurodevelopmental impairment, impaired lung growth, and childhood cancer. Early-life exposures to plastic-associated chemicals also increase the risk of multiple non-communicable diseases later in life. Economic Findings: Plastic's harms to human health result in significant economic costs. We estimate that in 2015 the health-related costs of plastic production exceeded $250 billion (2015 Int$) globally, and that in the USA alone the health costs of disease and disability caused by the plastic-associated chemicals PBDE, BPA and DEHP exceeded $920 billion (2015 Int$). Plastic production results in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions equivalent to 1.96 gigatons of carbon dioxide (CO2e) annually. Using the US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) social cost of carbonmetric, we estimate the annual costs of these GHG emissions to be $341 billion (2015 Int$).These costs, large as they are, almost certainly underestimate the full economic losses resulting from plastics' negative impacts on human health and the global environment. All of plastics' economic costs-and also its social costs-are externalized by the petrochemical and plastic manufacturing industry and are borne by citizens, taxpayers, and governments in countries around the world without compensation. Social Justice Findings: The adverse effects of plastics and plastic pollution on human health, the economy and the environment are not evenly distributed. They disproportionately affect poor, disempowered, and marginalized populations such as workers, racial and ethnic minorities, "fenceline" communities, Indigenous groups, women, and children, all of whom had little to do with creating the current plastics crisis and lack the political influence or the resources to address it. Plastics' harmful impacts across its life cycle are most keenly felt in the Global South, in small island states, and in disenfranchised areas in the Global North. Social and environmental justice (SEJ) principles require reversal of these inequitable burdens to ensure that no group bears a disproportionate share of plastics' negative impacts and that those who benefit economically from plastic bear their fair share of its currently externalized costs. Conclusions: It is now clear that current patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal are not sustainable and are responsible for significant harms to human health, the environment, and the economy as well as for deep societal injustices.The main driver of these worsening harms is an almost exponential and still accelerating increase in global plastic production. Plastics' harms are further magnified by low rates of recovery and recycling and by the long persistence of plastic waste in the environment.The thousands of chemicals in plastics-monomers, additives, processing agents, and non-intentionally added substances-include amongst their number known human carcinogens, endocrine disruptors, neurotoxicants, and persistent organic pollutants. These chemicals are responsible for many of plastics' known harms to human and planetary health. The chemicals leach out of plastics, enter the environment, cause pollution, and result in human exposure and disease. All efforts to reduce plastics' hazards must address the hazards of plastic-associated chemicals. Recommendations: To protect human and planetary health, especially the health of vulnerable and at-risk populations, and put the world on track to end plastic pollution by 2040, this Commission supports urgent adoption by the world's nations of a strong and comprehensive Global Plastics Treaty in accord with the mandate set forth in the March 2022 resolution of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA).International measures such as a Global Plastics Treaty are needed to curb plastic production and pollution, because the harms to human health and the environment caused by plastics, plastic-associated chemicals and plastic waste transcend national boundaries, are planetary in their scale, and have disproportionate impacts on the health and well-being of people in the world's poorest nations. Effective implementation of the Global Plastics Treaty will require that international action be coordinated and complemented by interventions at the national, regional, and local levels.This Commission urges that a cap on global plastic production with targets, timetables, and national contributions be a central provision of the Global Plastics Treaty. We recommend inclusion of the following additional provisions:The Treaty needs to extend beyond microplastics and marine litter to include all of the many thousands of chemicals incorporated into plastics.The Treaty needs to include a provision banning or severely restricting manufacture and use of unnecessary, avoidable, and problematic plastic items, especially single-use items such as manufactured plastic microbeads.The Treaty needs to include requirements on extended producer responsibility (EPR) that make fossil carbon producers, plastic producers, and the manufacturers of plastic products legally and financially responsible for the safety and end-of-life management of all the materials they produce and sell.The Treaty needs to mandate reductions in the chemical complexity of plastic products; health-protective standards for plastics and plastic additives; a requirement for use of sustainable non-toxic materials; full disclosure of all components; and traceability of components. International cooperation will be essential to implementing and enforcing these standards.The Treaty needs to include SEJ remedies at each stage of the plastic life cycle designed to fill gaps in community knowledge and advance both distributional and procedural equity.This Commission encourages inclusion in the Global Plastic Treaty of a provision calling for exploration of listing at least some plastic polymers as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention.This Commission encourages a strong interface between the Global Plastics Treaty and the Basel and London Conventions to enhance management of hazardous plastic waste and slow current massive exports of plastic waste into the world's least-developed countries.This Commission recommends the creation of a Permanent Science Policy Advisory Body to guide the Treaty's implementation. The main priorities of this Body would be to guide Member States and other stakeholders in evaluating which solutions are most effective in reducing plastic consumption, enhancing plastic waste recovery and recycling, and curbing the generation of plastic waste. This Body could also assess trade-offs among these solutions and evaluate safer alternatives to current plastics. It could monitor the transnational export of plastic waste. It could coordinate robust oceanic-, land-, and air-based MNP monitoring programs.This Commission recommends urgent investment by national governments in research into solutions to the global plastic crisis. This research will need to determine which solutions are most effective and cost-effective in the context of particular countries and assess the risks and benefits of proposed solutions. Oceanographic and environmental research is needed to better measure concentrations and impacts of plastics <10 µm and understand their distribution and fate in the global environment. Biomedical research is needed to elucidate the human health impacts of plastics, especially MNPs. Summary: This Commission finds that plastics are both a boon to humanity and a stealth threat to human and planetary health. Plastics convey enormous benefits, but current linear patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal that pay little attention to sustainable design or safe materials and a near absence of recovery, reuse, and recycling are responsible for grave harms to health, widespread environmental damage, great economic costs, and deep societal injustices. These harms are rapidly worsening.While there remain gaps in knowledge about plastics' harms and uncertainties about their full magnitude, the evidence available today demonstrates unequivocally that these impacts are great and that they will increase in severity in the absence of urgent and effective intervention at global scale. Manufacture and use of essential plastics may continue. However, reckless increases in plastic production, and especially increases in the manufacture of an ever-increasing array of unnecessary single-use plastic products, need to be curbed.Global intervention against the plastic crisis is needed now because the costs of failure to act will be immense.

How does formal and informal industry contribute to lead exposure? A narrative review from Vietnam, Uruguay, and Malaysia.

INTRODUCTION: Lead industries are one of the major sources of environmental pollution and can affect human through different activities, including industrial processes, metal plating, mining, battery recycling, etc. Although different studies have documented the various sources of lead exposure, studies highlighting different types of industries as sources of environmental contamination are limited. Therefore, this narrative review aims to focus mainly on lead industries as significant sources of environmental and human contamination. CONTENT: Based on the keywords searched in bibliographic databases we found 44 relevant articles that provided information on lead present in soil, water, and blood or all components among participants living near high-risk areas. We presented three case scenarios to highlight how lead industries have affected the health of citizens in Vietnam, Uruguay, and Malaysia. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK: Factories conducting mining, e-waste processing, used lead-acid battery recycling, electronic repair, and toxic waste sites were the primary industries for lead exposure. Our study has shown lead exposure due to industrial activities in Vietnam, Uruguay, Malaysia and calls for attention to the gaps in strategic and epidemiologic efforts to understand sources of environmental exposure to lead fully. Developing strategies and guidelines to regulate industrial activities, finding alternatives to reduce lead toxicity and exposure, and empowering the public through various community awareness programs can play a crucial role in controlling exposure to lead.

Escenarios de exposición a monóxido de carbono que orientan la sospecha clínica de intoxicación aguda / Carbon monoxide exposure scenarios that may guide a clinical suspicion of severe poisoning / Cenários de exposição ao monóxido de carbono que orientam a suspeita clínica de envenenamento agudo

Resumen: El monóxido de carbono (CO) se acumula en ambientes interiores cuando hay combustión y no es perceptible. Los síntomas de intoxicación son inespecíficos, por lo que las circunstancias en las que ocurre la intoxicación pueden ser orientadoras para el diagnóstico. Objetivo: fortalecer capacidades clínicas para sospechar y confirmar intoxicaciones por CO. Método: estudio descriptivo transversal de los casos sospechosos (pacientes con síntomas neurológicos o digestivos en los que se identifica una fuente de combustión en ambiente interior) consultados en el Centro de Información y Asesoramiento Toxicológico en 2017. Resultados: fueron 111 casos, de los cuales 52 ocurrieron en 22 episodios de exposición colectiva. Los menores de 15 años fueron 37/111 y el porcentaje de niños que se identificó en intoxicaciones colectivas (23/37) es significativamente mayor que en adultos. En el período invernal ocurrieron 67/111, siendo la temperatura mínima media de 9,3 ºC. Los equipos a combustión involucrados con mayor frecuencia fueron los calefones a gas, seguidos de las estufas a gas. El síntoma inicial más frecuente fue la cefalea. La media de la carboxihemoglobina (COHb) fue de 14,7%. Los casos severos (45/111) se correlacionaron significativamente con la exposición a CO de un calefón a gas. Conclusiones: la tasa de intoxicación es baja comparada con países de similar latitud, lo que plantea la posibilidad de un subdiagnóstico. La temperatura mínima ambiental por debajo de 10 °C, la permanencia en espacios con calefacción a combustión y el uso de calefón a gas fueron los escenarios típicos de la intoxicación. La cefalea es un síntoma clave para investigar la exposición. La sospecha diagnóstica puede ser menor cuando se trata de casos individuales, sobre todo en niños.

Summary: Carbon monoxide accumulates in closed environments when there is unnoticed combustion. Signs of poisoning are non-specific, and thus circumstances around poisoning may constitute a diagnostic guide. Objective: to strengthen the clinical capacities to suspect and confirm carbon monoxide poisoning. Method: descriptive, transversal study of suspicious cases (patients with neurological or digestive symptoms for which an indoor combustion source is identified) who consulted at the Poisoning Center in 2017. Results: 111 cases were included in the study, 52 of which occurred in 22 episodes of collective exposure. 37 patients were under 15 years old and the percentage of children identified in collective poisoning (23/37) was significantly greater than the one representing adults. 67 cases occurred in winter, minimum average temperature being 9.3°C. The combustion equipment most frequently involved in poisoning events were gas-fired water heaters in the first place, followed by gas stoves. The most frequent initial symptom was headache. Average COHb was 14.7%. Severe cases (45/111) were significantly corelated to carbon monoxide exposure from gas-fired water heaters. Conclusions: the poisoning rate is low when compared to countries in a similar latitude, what suggests the possibility of under-diagnosis. Minimum environment temperature under 10°C, staying in spaces with combustion-based heating and the use of gas-fired water heaters were the typical poisoning scenarios. Headache is a key symptom to search for exposure. The diagnostic suspicion may be lower when it involves individual cases, mainly in children.

Resumo: O monóxido de carbono (CO) se acumula em ambientes fechados quando há combustão e não é perceptível. Os sintomas de envenenamento são inespecíficos, portanto, as circunstâncias em que ocorre o envenenamento podem orientar o diagnóstico. Objetivo: fortalecer as capacidades clínicas para suspeitar e confirmar envenenamento por monóxido de carbono. Método: estudo descritivo transversal de casos suspeitos (pacientes com sintomas neurológicos ou digestivos em que uma fonte de combustão é identificada em ambiente interno) consultados no CIAT em 2017. Resultados: foram identificados 111 casos, dos quais 52 ocorreram em 22 episódios de exposição em grupo. Trinta e sete eram menores de 15 anos sendo que a porcentagem de crianças que foram identificadas em intoxicações coletivas (23/37) é significativamente maior do que em adultos. No "período de inverno", com temperatura média mínima de 9,3ºC, ocorreram 67 casos. Os equipamentos de combustão mais frequentemente envolvido foram aquecedores de água a gás, seguidos de fogões a gás. O sintoma inicial mais frequente foi cefaleia. O COHb médio foi de 14,7%. Os casos graves (45/111) foram significativamente correlacionados com a exposição ao CO de um aquecedor de água a gás. Conclusões: o índice de intoxicações é baixo quando comparado a países de latitude semelhante, o que indica a possibilidade de subdiagnóstico. A temperatura ambiente mínima abaixo de 10 ° C, a permanência em ambientes com aquecimento a combustão e o uso de aquecedores a gás foram os cenários típicos de intoxicação. A cefaleia é um sintoma chave para investigar a exposição. A suspeita diagnóstica pode ser menor quando se trata de casos individuais, principalmente em crianças.

Human Health and Ocean Pollution.

Background: Pollution - unwanted waste released to air, water, and land by human activity - is the largest environmental cause of disease in the world today. It is responsible for an estimated nine million premature deaths per year, enormous economic losses, erosion of human capital, and degradation of ecosystems. Ocean pollution is an important, but insufficiently recognized and inadequately controlled component of global pollution. It poses serious threats to human health and well-being. The nature and magnitude of these impacts are only beginning to be understood. Goals: (1) Broadly examine the known and potential impacts of ocean pollution on human health. (2) Inform policy makers, government leaders, international organizations, civil society, and the global public of these threats. (3) Propose priorities for interventions to control and prevent pollution of the seas and safeguard human health. Methods: Topic-focused reviews that examine the effects of ocean pollution on human health, identify gaps in knowledge, project future trends, and offer evidence-based guidance for effective intervention. Environmental Findings: Pollution of the oceans is widespread, worsening, and in most countries poorly controlled. It is a complex mixture of toxic metals, plastics, manufactured chemicals, petroleum, urban and industrial wastes, pesticides, fertilizers, pharmaceutical chemicals, agricultural runoff, and sewage. More than 80% arises from land-based sources. It reaches the oceans through rivers, runoff, atmospheric deposition and direct discharges. It is often heaviest near the coasts and most highly concentrated along the coasts of low- and middle-income countries. Plastic is a rapidly increasing and highly visible component of ocean pollution, and an estimated 10 million metric tons of plastic waste enter the seas each year. Mercury is the metal pollutant of greatest concern in the oceans; it is released from two main sources - coal combustion and small-scale gold mining. Global spread of industrialized agriculture with increasing use of chemical fertilizer leads to extension of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) to previously unaffected regions. Chemical pollutants are ubiquitous and contaminate seas and marine organisms from the high Arctic to the abyssal depths. Ecosystem Findings: Ocean pollution has multiple negative impacts on marine ecosystems, and these impacts are exacerbated by global climate change. Petroleum-based pollutants reduce photosynthesis in marine microorganisms that generate oxygen. Increasing absorption of carbon dioxide into the seas causes ocean acidification, which destroys coral reefs, impairs shellfish development, dissolves calcium-containing microorganisms at the base of the marine food web, and increases the toxicity of some pollutants. Plastic pollution threatens marine mammals, fish, and seabirds and accumulates in large mid-ocean gyres. It breaks down into microplastic and nanoplastic particles containing multiple manufactured chemicals that can enter the tissues of marine organisms, including species consumed by humans. Industrial releases, runoff, and sewage increase frequency and severity of HABs, bacterial pollution, and anti-microbial resistance. Pollution and sea surface warming are triggering poleward migration of dangerous pathogens such as the Vibrio species. Industrial discharges, pharmaceutical wastes, pesticides, and sewage contribute to global declines in fish stocks. Human Health Findings: Methylmercury and PCBs are the ocean pollutants whose human health effects are best understood. Exposures of infants in utero to these pollutants through maternal consumption of contaminated seafood can damage developing brains, reduce IQ and increase children's risks for autism, ADHD and learning disorders. Adult exposures to methylmercury increase risks for cardiovascular disease and dementia. Manufactured chemicals - phthalates, bisphenol A, flame retardants, and perfluorinated chemicals, many of them released into the seas from plastic waste - can disrupt endocrine signaling, reduce male fertility, damage the nervous system, and increase risk of cancer. HABs produce potent toxins that accumulate in fish and shellfish. When ingested, these toxins can cause severe neurological impairment and rapid death. HAB toxins can also become airborne and cause respiratory disease. Pathogenic marine bacteria cause gastrointestinal diseases and deep wound infections. With climate change and increasing pollution, risk is high that Vibrio infections, including cholera, will increase in frequency and extend to new areas. All of the health impacts of ocean pollution fall disproportionately on vulnerable populations in the Global South - environmental injustice on a planetary scale. Conclusions: Ocean pollution is a global problem. It arises from multiple sources and crosses national boundaries. It is the consequence of reckless, shortsighted, and unsustainable exploitation of the earth's resources. It endangers marine ecosystems. It impedes the production of atmospheric oxygen. Its threats to human health are great and growing, but still incompletely understood. Its economic costs are only beginning to be counted.Ocean pollution can be prevented. Like all forms of pollution, ocean pollution can be controlled by deploying data-driven strategies based on law, policy, technology, and enforcement that target priority pollution sources. Many countries have used these tools to control air and water pollution and are now applying them to ocean pollution. Successes achieved to date demonstrate that broader control is feasible. Heavily polluted harbors have been cleaned, estuaries rejuvenated, and coral reefs restored.Prevention of ocean pollution creates many benefits. It boosts economies, increases tourism, helps restore fisheries, and improves human health and well-being. It advances the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). These benefits will last for centuries. Recommendations: World leaders who recognize the gravity of ocean pollution, acknowledge its growing dangers, engage civil society and the global public, and take bold, evidence-based action to stop pollution at source will be critical to preventing ocean pollution and safeguarding human health.Prevention of pollution from land-based sources is key. Eliminating coal combustion and banning all uses of mercury will reduce mercury pollution. Bans on single-use plastic and better management of plastic waste reduce plastic pollution. Bans on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have reduced pollution by PCBs and DDT. Control of industrial discharges, treatment of sewage, and reduced applications of fertilizers have mitigated coastal pollution and are reducing frequency of HABs. National, regional and international marine pollution control programs that are adequately funded and backed by strong enforcement have been shown to be effective. Robust monitoring is essential to track progress.Further interventions that hold great promise include wide-scale transition to renewable fuels; transition to a circular economy that creates little waste and focuses on equity rather than on endless growth; embracing the principles of green chemistry; and building scientific capacity in all countries.Designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) will safeguard critical ecosystems, protect vulnerable fish stocks, and enhance human health and well-being. Creation of MPAs is an important manifestation of national and international commitment to protecting the health of the seas.

Impact of pesticide exposure in childhood.

Pesticides represent a wide variety of chemicals presented as different formulations and concentrations and used in different settings: agriculture, animal sanitary bath, domestic use, and vector control. Lack of awareness, poor agricultural practices, and inappropriate disposal of containers will increase the exposure and risk of health effects during childhood. The concern about children's exposure to pesticides is based on their toxic properties and the special vulnerability to the exposure, which may occur in different stages, from the prenatal period to infancy. Pesticide related diseases may manifest during the infancy, adolescence, or adulthood. Children may be exposed by multiple routes of exposure, in different scenarios. In domestic settings, insecticides and rodenticides are usually stored within the reach of children, or may be transferred to non-original containers, leading to acute non intentional ingestion. Exploratory behavior increases the risk for exposure to pesticides present on the ground. Gardens and playgrounds may have pesticides residues. Children may be in contact with domestic animals that have been treated with pesticides. In rural settings, children can be exposed to pesticide residues in areas where they have been applied, or by contamination of work equipment and parents clothing. Families dedicated to rural activity have higher levels of exposure, through ingesting contaminated fruits, vegetables, milk, eggs, and water. Several studies confirmed pesticide exposure in children by biomonitoring. Higher levels of organophosphate metabolites have been reported in children compared to adult populations. Toxic effects of pesticides depend on their intrinsic toxic properties as well as on the dose, duration, and life period of exposure. Acute poisonings are related to high doses exposure, while chronic, subtle and delayed effects are often related to low levels/doses exposure. Epidemiologic, animal, and clinical studies suggest an association between chronic, low-level exposures and alterations in growth and development (particularly impaired neurobehavioral development), cancer and increased susceptibility to infections. New research presents evidence that some pesticides are a risk factor of a wide range of acute and chronic diseases. Better practices and public health policies are needed to prevent and protect children from pesticides exposure.

Cianobacterias en las playas: riesgos toxicológicos y vulnerabilidad infantil / Cyanobacteria in beaches: toxicological risk and child vulnerability / Cianobactérias nas praias: riscos toxicológicos e vulnerabilidade infantil

Resumen: Las cianobacterias son bacterias fotosintéticas del plancton de aguas dulces y saladas. Su acumulación excesiva en las aguas recreacionales y potables se conoce como floración algal, con potenciales efectos en la salud de seres humanos. Son predominantemente estivales, en cursos de aguas dulces y pueden alcanzar las costas oceánicas. Esta es una revisión bibliográfica basada en las publicaciones registradas en PubMed-Medline, BVS (Biblioteca Virtual en Salud que incluye SciELO, LILACS, IBECS), Springer, Science Direct, Portal Timbó, y obtenidas con los términos "cianobacterias", "cianotoxinas", "microcistina", "floraciones algales", "pediatría", "niños", "recreacional" "intoxicación" "exposición", sin límites de año de publicación. Su objetivo es actualizar el conocimiento sobre cianotoxinas y efectos en la salud humana, analizar escenarios de riesgo de exposición a cianobacterias, particularmente en niños, y reforzar medidas preventivas de la exposición y promover acciones desde el sector sanitario. Las manifestaciones clínicas de la intoxicación por exposición reciente son malestar general, irritación de piel y mucosas, síntomas respiratorios e incluso afectación hepática en casos graves. Es preciso incluir estas floraciones en la etiopatogenia de estos cuadros y relacionarlos con la exposición utilizando la monitorización de floraciones del país. La exposición a cianobacterias es un riesgo emergente para la salud. La evidencia científica de los últimos años consolida el conocimiento de efectos en la salud humana por exposición a cianobacterias. Recientemente se identifica el baño, juegos infantiles e ingesta de arena en costas con altos niveles de contaminación como un escenario de riesgo en niños. La evidencia de hepatoxicidad por cianotoxinas es aún más escasa, aunque existen casos documentados. El sistema de monitoreo de playas permite a los equipos de salud incorporar la sospecha de exposición a cianobacterias y el posible contacto con sus toxinas, para poder realizar un diagnóstico temprano y participar en la prevención de la exposición.

Summary: Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic bacteria from fresh and saltwater plankton. Its excessive accumulation in recreational and drinking waters is known as algal bloom that could potentially affect human health. They are mainly seen in summer, in freshwater waterways and can reach the ocean coasts. This is a bibliographic review based on the publications registered in PubMed-Medline, BVS (Virtual Health Library that includes SciELO, LILACS, IBECS), Springer, Science Direct, Portal Timbó, and obtained with the terms "cyanobacteria", "cyanotoxins", "Microcystine", "algal blooms", "pediatrics", "children", "recreational" "intoxication" "exposure" without year of publication limits. The review aims to update knowledge about cyanotoxins and their effect on human health; analyze risk scenarios of exposure to cyanobacteria, particularly in children, and reinforce preventive measures for exposure, as well as to promote actions from the health sector. The clinical manifestations of recent exposure poisoning are general malaise, skin and mucous irritation, respiratory symptoms and even liver insufficiency in severe cases. It is necessary to include these blooms in the pathogenesis of these clinic cases and relate them to the exposure using the monitoring of blooms in the country. Exposure to cyanobacteria is an emerging health risk. The scientific evidence of the last years consolidates knowledge on the effect of exposure to cyanobacteria on human health. Recently, bathing, children's games, and sand intake on coasts with high levels of contamination have been identified as a risk scenario for children. Evidence of cyanotoxin hepatoxicity is even scarcer, although there are documented cases. The beach monitoring system allows health teams to incorporate the suspicion of exposure to cyanobacteria and possible contact with their toxins, to make an early diagnosis and participate in the prevention of exposure.

Resumo: As cianobactérias são bactérias fotossintéticas do plâncton de águas doces e salgadas. Sua acumulação excessiva em águas recreacionais e potáveis é conhecida como floração algal com potenciais efeitos sobre a saúde de seres humanos. São predominantemente estivais, ocorrem em cursos de águas doces e podem alcançar as costas oceânicas. Esta é uma revisão bibliográfica baseada nas publicações indexadas em PubMed-Medline, BVS (Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde que inclui SciELO, LILACS, IBECS), Springer, Science Direct, Portal Timbó, e obtidas com os termos "cianobactérias", "cianotoxinas", "microcistina", "florações algais", "pediatria", "crianças", "recreacional" "intoxicação" "exposição", sem limites de ano de publicação. Seu objetivo é atualizar o conhecimento sobre cianotoxinas e efeitos sobre a saúde humana; analisar cenários de risco de exposição a cianobactérias, particularmente em crianças e reforçar medidas preventivas de exposição e promover ações do setor sanitário. As manifestações clínicas da intoxicação por exposição recente são mal-estar geral, irritação de pele e mucosas, sintomas respiratórios e incluso afetação hepática nos casos graves. É preciso incluir estas florações, na etiopatogenia destes quadros e relacioná-las com a exposição utilizando o monitoramento das florações do país. A exposição a cianobactérias é um risco emergente para a saúde. A evidência científica dos últimos anos consolida o conhecimento sobre os efeitos sobre a saúde humana por exposição a cianobactérias; recentemente foram identificados como um cenário de risco para crianças: o banho, jogos infantis e ingestão de areia nas costas com altos níveis de contaminação. A evidência de hepatoxicidade por cianotoxinas é ainda escassa embora existam casos documentados. O sistema de monitoramento de praias permite as equipes de saúde incorporar a suspeita de exposição a cianobactérias e o possível contacto com suas toxinas, para poder realizar um diagnóstico precoce e participar na prevenção da exposição.

Efectos del consumo de cannabis durante el embarazo y la lactancia / Effects of cannabis consumption during pregnancy and lactation / Efeitos do consumo de cannabis durante a gravidez e a amamentação

Resumen: La marihuana se consume en menor proporción que el alcohol y el tabaco. La edad de mayor frecuencia de consumo coincide con la edad reproductiva. Los cannabinoides tienen características cinéticas y mecanismos de acción que suponen riesgo de exposición fetal y en la lactancia. El embarazo presenta cambios fisiológicos que facilitan la exposición fetal. La vulnerabilidad del sistema endocanabinoide en la etapa de desarrollo neurológico plantea la sospecha de efectos adversos asociados a la exposición a cannabis y derivados. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo actualizar la información científica sobre los efectos del consumo de cannabis y derivados durante el embarazo y la lactancia. Se realizó una revisión descriptiva de artículos publicados en revistas científicas arbitradas entre enero de 2010 y diciembre de 2018. Se incluyó el análisis de bases de datos utilizando combinaciones de términos en idioma inglés y español: "marihuana", "cannabis", "cannabinoides", "embarazo", "lactancia". Los efectos asociados con el consumo de marihuana en el embarazo no son concluyentes, aunque hay creciente evidencia de su asociación con alteraciones en el nacimiento, como bajo peso al nacer y daños en el neurodesarrollo que impactan en el niño y se mantienen en la infancia tardía y la adolescencia. No se encontró asociación con otros indicadores como mortalidad perinatal y prematurez. Entre las debilidades de los estudios revisados, la mayoría están basados en el autorreporte y plantean dificultades e incertidumbres respecto al consumo de otras sustancias como factor de confusión. Hasta el momento la evidencia es suficiente para adoptar el principio de precaución y recomendación de evitar su consumo durante el embarazo y la lactancia.

Summary: Marijuana consumption is lower than that of alcohol and tobacco. The highest consumption frequency takes place during reproductive age. Cannabinoids have kinetic characteristics and action mechanisms that pose a risk during pregnancy and lactation. Pregnancy involves physiological changes that facilitate fetal exposure to cannabis. The fetus vulnerability to the endocannabinoid system during the stage of neurological development raises the suspicion of adverse effects linked to the exposure to cannabis and derivatives. The objective of this paper is to update the scientific data regarding the effects of the use of cannabis and derivatives during pregnancy and lactation. We carried out a descriptive review of scientific articles published in peer-reviewed journals between January 2010 and December 2018. We included a database analysis and used combinations of terms in English and Spanish: "marijuana", "cannabis", "cannabinoids", "pregnancy", "lactation". The effects of marijuana consumption during pregnancy are not conclusive, although there is growing evidence that it might be linked to birth alterations, such as low birth weight and neurodevelopmental damage remaining until late childhood and adolescence. No link was found to other indicators, such as perinatal mortality and pre-term births. The self-reported studies analyzed posed various weaknesses, mainly uncertainties and confusion regarding the consumption of other substances. So far, we have enough evidence to adopt a precautionary principle and to recommend against the use of cannabis during pregnancy and lactation.

Resumo: O consumo de cannabis é menor do que o do álcool e do tabaco. A maior frequência de consumo ocorre durante a idade reprodutiva das pessoas. Os canabinóides têm características cinéticas e mecanismos de ação que representam um risco durante a gravidez e amamentação. A gravidez envolve alterações fisiológicas que facilitam a exposição fetal à cannabis. A vulnerabilidade do feto ao sistema endocanabinóide durante o estágio de desenvolvimento neurológico levanta a suspeita de efeitos adversos ligados à exposição à cannabis e seus derivados. O objetivo deste paper é atualizar os dados científicos sobre os efeitos do uso de cannabis e derivados durante a gestação e amamentação. Realizamos uma revisão descritiva de artigos científicos publicados em periódicos revisados por pares entre janeiro de 2010 e dezembro de 2018. Incluímos uma análise de banco de dados e utilizamos combinações de termos em inglês e espanhol: "maconha", "cannabis", "canabinóides", " gravidez "," amamentação". Os efeitos do consumo de cannabis durante a gravidez não são conclusivos, embora haja evidências crescentes de que o consumo possa estar relacionado a alterações no nascimento, como baixo peso ao nascer e dano ao desenvolvimento neurológico até os estágios da infância e adolescência tardias. Não foi encontrada relação com outros indicadores, como mortalidade perinatal e nascimentos pré-termo. Os estudos analisados apresentaram várias fragilidades, principalmente autorrelato e incertezas e confusão em relação ao consumo de outras substâncias. Até agora, temos evidências suficientes para adotar um princípio de precaução e recomendar contra o uso de cannabis durante a gravidez e a lactação.

Perfil epidemiológico de las intoxicaciones por antidepresivos recibidas en el Centro Información y Asesoramiento Toxicológico uruguayo en el período 2010-2012 / Epidemiological profile in poisoning with antidepressants cases received at the Poison Information and Advice Center (Centro Información y Asesoramiento Toxicológico) in Uruguay between 2010 and 2012

Introducción: la depresión es una de las principales causas mundiales de discapacidad. Datos nacionales mostraron que 10,6% de la población consumió en alguna oportunidad algún antidepresivo. La importancia de la exposición de este grupo terapéutico en la sociedad se puede ver reflejada, entre otros aspectos, en la frecuencia en que se encuentran implicados en intoxicaciones. Objetivo: el objetivo de este estudio fue describir el perfil epidemiológico de las intoxicaciones por antidepresivos recibidas por el Centro de Información y Asesoramiento Toxicológico (CIAT) entre los años 2010 y 2012. Metodología: estudio observacional retrospectivo en el cual se analizaron las consultas de intoxicaciones que involucraron un antidepresivo, registradas en el CIAT entre 2010-2012. Resultados: se recibieron 32.565 consultas toxicológicas en el período analizado. Los antidepresivos fueron implicados como agente tóxico causal en 2.523 (7,7%). La mayoría de las intoxicaciones ocurrieron en pacientes de sexo femenino (75,4%), adultos (79,3%) y fueron de causa intencional (90%). El antidepresivo más frecuentemente implicado fue sertralina (38%). La totalidad de las intoxicaciones severas (54; 2,1%) implicaron más de un fármaco. Se registró un solo caso fatal. Conclusiones: el perfil de intoxicaciones por antidepresivos en Uruguay entre 2010 y 2012 es similar al reportado en series internacionales y apoya el ya conocido riesgo de los antidepresivos de segunda generación. Si bien en número escaso, se destaca la exposición a estos medicamentos en menores de 18 años, sobre todo menores de 5 años, lo que requiere mayor caracterización. (AU)

Introduction: Depression is one of the main global causes of disability. National data showed that 10.6% of the population once consumed some kind of antidepressant. It is important to focus on this therapeutic group since, among other aspects, they are frequently involved in cases of poisoning. Objective: The study aims to describe the epidemiological profile of poisoning with antidepressants of individuals who consulted at the Poison Information and Advice Center (Centro Información y Asesoramiento Toxicológico (CIAT) between 2010 and 2012. Methodology: Observational, retrospective study whereby consultations for poisoning involving antidepressants recorded in the CIAT between 2010 and 2012, were analysed. Results: 32565 poisoning consultations were received in the period under the study. Antidepressants were the causing poisoning agent in 2523 cases 7.7%. Most cases of poisoning occurred in female patients (75.4%), adults (79.3%), and were intentional in 90% of cases. The most frequently involved antidepressant was sertraline (38%). All cases of severe poisoning (54, accounting for 2.1%) involved more than one drug. Only one death was recorded. Conclusions: The profile of poisoning with antidepressants in Uruguay, between 2010 and 2012 is similar to that reported in international series and supports the already known risk of second generation antidepressants. Despite figures being low, we point out the exposure of the population younger than 18 years old, in particular younger than 5 years old, to these drugs, what calls for characterization.

Introdução: a depressão é uma das principais causas mundiais de deficiências. Dados nacionais mostraram que 10,6% da população consumiu em algum momento um antidepressivo. A importância da exposição deste grupo terapêutico na sociedade pode ser vista, entre outros aspectos, na frequência em que se encontram implicados em intoxicações. Objetivo: o objetivo deste estudo foi descrever o perfil epidemiológico das intoxicações por antidepressivos recebidas no Centro de Información y Asesoramiento Toxicológico (CIAT) entre 2010 e 2012. Metodologia: estudo observacional retrospectivo no qual foram analisadas as consultas por intoxicações registradas no CIAT entre 2010-2012 que estavam relacionadas a um antidepressivo, Resultados: no período analisado foram recebidas 32565 consultas toxicológicas. Os antidepressivos foram identificados como agente tóxico causal em 2523 (7,7%). As maiorias das intoxicações foram em pacientes de sexo feminino (75,4%), adultos (79,3%) e tiveram causa intencional (90%). O antidepressivo mais frequentemente implicado foi a sertralina (38%). Todas as intoxicações severas (54; 2,1%) foram devidas a mais de um fármaco. Somente um caso registrado foi fatal. Conclusões: o perfil das intoxicações por antidepressivos no Uruguai entre 2010 e 2012 é similar ao descrito em series internacionais e reforça o risco conhecido dos antidepressivos de segunda geração. Embora o número seja escasso, destaca-se a exposição de menores de 18 anos, sobre todo menores de 5 anos a estes medicamentos o que implica na necessidade de uma melhor caracterização.

Exposición a cocaína en niños menores de 5 años: serie de casos / Cases of exposure to cocaine in children under 5 years of age / Casos de exposição à cocaína em crianças menores de 5 anos

Resumen: Los hijos de madres consumidoras de cocaína están expuestos en la etapa prenatal y durante la lactancia. Asimismo, están en riesgo de ingesta no intencional o contacto mucoso de restos de la sustancia a su alcance y de inhalación pasiva del humo de cocaínas fumables en ambientes cerrados. Objetivo: describir el perfil epidemiológico de la exposición a cocaína en los niños menores a 5 años en nuestro país analizando circunstancias de exposición, manifestaciones clínicas y complicaciones agudas. Material y método: estudio observacional, descriptivo, retrospectivo de las consultas reportadas a un centro de toxicología en el período 2010-2016 de niños de hasta 5 años de edad con screening positivo para cocaína en orina. Resultados: se incluyeron 18 casos, se analizaron 17 por insuficiencia de datos. Todos fueron menores de 2 años. Predominaron manifestaciones neurológicas (12/17): convulsiones (7/12). Otras manifestaciones incluyeron: taquicardia (2/17), hipertensión (3/17), elevación de creatinfosfokinasa total (4/17) y rabdomiólisis (2/17). Catorce pacientes se encontraban en lactancia pero solo siete madres presentaron screening positivo. El screening de cocaína fue el criterio de selección por su baja tasa de falsos positivos. Esta serie coincide con la literatura en edad de riesgo para exposición a cocaína, planteándose la lactancia como principal vía de ingreso. Sin embargo, los resultados muestran que otras vías de ingreso son posibles. Las convulsiones fueron la forma de presentación más frecuente. Conclusiones: los casos reportados evidencian la necesidad de mantener un alto índice de sospecha ante síntomas neurológicos o cardiovasculares, evidencian el valor de los tests de screening y expanden las circunstancias de riesgo.

Summary: Children born of cocaine-using mothers are exposed to the substance during the prenatal and breastfeeding periods. They are also at risk of cocaine unintentional ingestion or mucosal contact when the substance remains within their reach or at risk of passive inhalation of smoke from cocaine smoked in confined environments. Objective: describe the cocaine exposure epidemiological profile in children under 5 years of age in our country, analyze circumstances of exposure, clinical manifestations and acute complications. Material and methods: observational, descriptive and retrospective study of the consultations reported to a Toxicological Center during 2010-2016 of children up to 5 years of age with positive urine cocaine screening. Results: we included 18 cases, but only 17 were analyzed, due to insufficient data. All children were under 2 years of age. Neurological manifestations were predominant (12/17): seizures (7/12). Other manifestations included tachycardia (2/17), hypertension (3/17), total creatinine phosphokinase increase (4/17) and rhabdomyolysis (2/17). Fourteen patients have been breastfed, but only seven mothers showed positive screening. Cocaine positive screening was the selection criteria because of its low false positive rate. This series matches the literature regarding the main age risk regarding cocaine exposure; breastfeeding was considered the main source of exposure. However, the results show that other sources are possible. Seizures were the most frequent form of presentation. Conclusions: reported cases show that we should be cautious regarding neurological or cardiovascular symptoms, support the implementation of screening tests and expand risk circumstances.

Resumo: Os filhos de mães que usam cocaína estão expostos durante a fase pré-natal e durante a lactação. Da mesma forma, correm o risco de ingestão não intencional ou contato mucoso de restos da substância ao seu alcance e de inalação passiva de fumaça de cocaína fumável em ambientes fechados. Objetivo: descrever o perfil epidemiológico da exposição à cocaína em crianças menores de cinco anos de idade em Uruguai, analisar as circunstâncias de exposição, as manifestações clínicas e as complicações agudas. Material e métodos: estudo observacional, descritivo retrospectivo das consultas reportadas a um Centro de Toxicologia no período 2010-2016, realizado a crianças de até 5 anos de idade com triagem positiva para cocaína na urina. Resultados: nós incluímos 18 casos e analisamos 17 devido a dados insuficientes. Todos tinham menos de 2 anos de idade. As principais manifestações neurológicas (12/17) foram: convulsões (7/12). Outras manifestações incluíram: taquicardia (2/17), hipertensão (3/17), elevação total da creatinofosfoquinase (4/17) e rabdomiólise (2/17). 14 pacientes eram lactantes, mas apenas 7 mães tiveram triagem positiva. O rastreamento de cocaína foi o critério de seleção devido à baixa taxa de falsos positivos. Esta série coincide com a literatura sobre a idade de risco para a exposição à cocaína, considerando a amamentação como a principal via de entrada da substância no organismo. No entanto, os resultados mostram que existem outras vias de entrada da substancia no organismo. A forma de apresentação mais frequente foram as convulsões. Conclusões: os casos relatados mostram que devemos ser cautelosos quanto aos sintomas neurológicos ou cardiovasculares, apoiar a implementação de testes de triagem e expandir as circunstâncias de risco.

Exposición no intencional a cannabis en niños en el marco de la regulación del mercado en Uruguay. Reporte de casos asistidos en el Departamento de Emergencia del Centro Hospitalario Pereira Rossell entre marzo y junio de 2017 / Children unintentionally exposed to cannabis within the framework of the Uruguayan Cannabis Sale Regulation. Cases assisted at the Emergency Department of the Pereira Rossell Hospital between March and June 2017 / Exposição não intencional à cânabis em crianças no âmbito do regulamento das vendas do cânabis no Uruguai. Relatório de casos atendidos no Serviço de Emergência do Hospital Pereira Rossell entre março e junho de 2017

Resumen: Introducción: la marihuana es la sustancia de abuso más consumida en América y Europa después del alcohol. En Uruguay la prevalencia es cercana a 23%. El principio activo delta 9-tetrahidrocannabinol es responsable de los efectos psicoactivos. La principal fuente en un niño es una parte de la planta, cigarrillo o comestible con cannabis proveniente de un familiar o vecino. La intoxicación puede ser más severa en niños que en adultos. En Uruguay, en 2013, se aprobó la ley 19.172 que regula el mercado de cannabis, generando un nuevo escenario con potencial riesgo para la población pediátrica. Objetivo: comunicar casos clínicos de intoxicación aguda no intencional por cannabis asistidos entre marzo y junio de 2017, analizar circunstancias de exposición, manifestaciones clínicas, severidad y evolución. Observación clínica: cuatro niños (9 meses, 1, 2 y 8 años) fueron asistidos. En todos ellos la vía de ingreso fue oral en ambiente doméstico. Presentaron síntomas neurológicos agudos: depresión de conciencia, convulsiones, distonías, ataxia, irritabilidad. Requirieron medidas de sostén, descontaminación digestiva y exámenes de laboratorio ampliado. El screening en orina fue positivo en cuatro casos. En dos se realizó la técnica confirmatoria. Aplicando el Poisoning Severity Score, todos sufrieron intoxicación moderada. Se asistieron en conjunto con toxicólogo clínico. Conclusiones: los niños que presentan síntomas predominantemente neurológicos de instalación aguda sin una causa evidente, pueden presentar intoxicación aguda por cannabis, sobre todo cuando en el entorno doméstico hay consumo, cultivo o ambos. Debemos mantener una vigilancia activa. Seguramente futuras investigaciones contribuirán a definir la necesidad de establecer estrategias de prevención destinadas a la población infantil con el objetivo de disminuir el potencial efecto no deseado de este nuevo escenario.

Summary: Introduction: marijuana is most highly consumed abuse substance in America and Europe after alcohol. In Uruguay, the prevalence is close to 23%. The active ingredient, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, is responsible for its psychoactive effects. The main source of access for a child involves a relative and/or neighbor. Intoxication may be more severe in children, In 2013,.cannabis-sale regulating Act 19.172 was approved in Uruguay, and it generated a new potentially risky scenario for children. Objective: report clinical cases of severe unintentional intoxication from cannabis between March and June 2017, and analyze circumstances that led to exposure, clinical manifestations, severity and evolution. Clinical observation: 4 children (9 months, 1, 2 and 8 years of age) were assisted. In all cases, they had ingested cannabis in their home environment. They presented severe neurological symptoms: depressed level of consciousness, convulsive seizures, dystonia, ataxia, irritability. They required supportive measures, digestive decontamination and additional laboratory tests. Urine screening was positive in 4 cases. In 2, we performed confirmatory technique. As per the Poisoning Severity Score, all children suffered moderate intoxication. They were assisted jointly by a clinical toxicologist. Conclusions: children showing predominantly acute neurological symptoms with no apparent cause can be the subject of severe cannabis intoxication, especially when cannabis consumption takes place in their household environments. Surveillance is needed and future research will certainly contribute to the creation of prevention strategies with the purpose of reducing the potential unwanted consequences of this new scenario for children.

Resumo: Introdução: a maconha é a substância do abuso mais consumida na América e na Europa depois do álcool. No Uruguai, a prevalência é próxima de 23%. O ingrediente ativo delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol é responsável pelos efeitos psicoativos. A principal fonte de acesso à marijuana por parte duma criança é ingerir uma parte da planta, cigarro ou comestível com cânabis de um parente e / ou vizinho. A intoxicação pode ser mais grave em crianças do que em adultos. No Uruguai, em 2013, a Lei 19.172 foi aprovada e regulou a venda de cânabis, gerando um novo cenário com risco potencial para as crianças. Objetivo: relatar casos clínicos de intoxicação aguda não intencional por cânabis atendidos entre março e junho de 2017, analisar as circunstâncias de exposição, manifestações clínicas, gravidade e evolução. Observação clínica: 4 crianças (9 meses, 1, 2 e 8 anos de idade) foram atendidas. Todos eles ingeriram cânabis num ambiente doméstico. Apresentaram sintomas neurológicos agudos: depressão da consciência, convulsões, distonia, ataxia, irritabilidade. Eles precisaram de medidas de suporte, descontaminação digestiva e testes de laboratório adicionais. O screening de urina foi positivo em 4 casos. Em 2, a técnica confirmatória foi realizada. Utilizando o Poisoning Severity Score, todos sofreram intoxicação moderada. Eles foram assistidos conjuntamente pelo toxicologista clínico. Conclusões: é possível que crianças que apresentam sintomas neurológicos predominantemente de instalação aguda sem causa evidente, apresentem intoxicação aguda por cânabis, especialmente quando existe consumo no ambiente ou na cultura domésticos. Nós devemos manter uma vigilância ativa. Com certeza, futuras pesquisas contribuirão para definir estratégias de prevenção para crianças, com o objetivo de reduzir o potencial efeito indesejado desse novo cenário.

E-Waste Informal Recycling: An Emerging Source of Lead Exposure in South America.

BACKGROUND: Primitive electronic waste (e-waste) recycling creates exposures to several hazardous substances including lead. In Uruguay, primitive recycling procedures are a significant source of lead exposure. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to examine lead exposure in blood lead levels (BLLs) in low-income children exposed to lead through burning cables. METHODS: A sample of children and adolescents exposed to lead through burning cable activities were assessed at the Department of Toxicology in Montevideo, Uruguay, between 2010 and 2014. Soil lead levels of residences were taken shortly after their assessment. FINDINGS: The final sample included 69 children and adolescents (mean age 7.89 years). More than 66% of participants had an additional source of lead exposure-manual gathering of metals-and <5% were exposed to lead through landfills or paint. Average BLLs at first consultation were 9.19 ug/dL and lower at the second measurement (5.86 µg/dL). Data from soil lead levels ranged from 650 to 19,000 mg of lead/kg of soil. The interventions conducted after the assessment included family education in the clinic and at home, indoor and outdoor remediation. We found a decrease in BLLs of 6.96 µg/dL. Older children had lower BLLs (r = -0.24; P = 0.05). Statistical analyses also showed that children living in areas with higher soil lead levels had significantly higher BLLs (r = 0.50; P < 0.01). Additionally, we found greater BLLs from burning cable activities when children had been exposed to lead-based paint (r = 0.23; P < 0.1). CONCLUSION: Among children exposed to e-waste recycling, the most common additional source of lead exposure was the manual gathering of metals. The average BLL among children and adolescents in this study is higher than the BLLs currently suggested in medical intervention. Future research should focus on exploring effective interventions to reduce lead exposure among this vulnerable group.

Intoxicación aguda por cocaína en un lactante no asociada a lactancia materna. A propósito de un caso clínico / Acute cocaine intoxication in an infant that is not associated to maternal breastfeeding. A clinical case

La intoxicación aguda por cocaína es infrecuente en lactantes y niños. Las formas más frecuentes de presentación clínica son las convulsiones tónico-clónicas en apirexia, alteraciones motoras y la excitación psicomotriz. Se presenta el caso de un lactante de 1 mes que ingresó a la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos de Niños del Centro Hospitalario Pereira Rossell por una intoxicación aguda por cocaína. El cuadro clínico consistió en manifestaciones secundarias a un estado hiperadrenérgico generalizado, con lesión miocárdica, excitación psicomotriz, distonías cervicales, convulsiones y acidosis metabólica persistente. Presentó el test de detección de benzoilecgonina en orina positivo al momento del ingreso a la emergencia. No se pudo establecer con exactitud cuál fue la vía de ingreso de la cocaína. Es necesario un alto índice de sospecha para llegar al diagnóstico de intoxicación por cocaína en lactantes.

Acute intoxication with cocaine is infrequent in children. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures, movement disorders and agitation are the most frequently observed clinical features in cocaine intoxication. We present the case of acute cocaine intoxication in a 1 month old boy who was hospitalized in the Pediatric Critical Care Unit of Pereira Rossell Hospital Center. Clinical features were secondary to generalized adrenergic stimulation. Clinical features were myocardial damage, cervical dystonic movements, agitation and metabolic acidosis. Urine toxicology screening proved positive for benzoylecgonine upon arrival at the Emergency Unit. Cocaine´s entry into the infant was not clearly established, although it was likely to be passive exposure to coca paste smoke. A high level of suspicion is needed in order to diagnose diagnosis acute cocaine intoxication in children.

Perfil epidemiológico de las intoxicaciones por benzodiazepinas recibidas en el Centro de Información y Asesoramiento Toxicológico uruguayo en el período 2010-2011 / Epidemiologic profile of benzodiazepine poisoning seen at the Uruguayan Toxicology Assistance and Information Center, from 2010 through 2011

Desde la década de 1960 la utilización de benzodiazepinas (BZD) ha experimentado un constante incremento. La alta exposición de este grupo farmacológico se ve reflejada, entre otros aspectos, en la frecuencia de las intoxicaciones por BZD, que representan entre 27% y 40% de las intoxicaciones por medicamentos en series internacionales. Objetivo: describir el perfil epidemiológico de las intoxicaciones por benzodiazepinas en nuestro país. Metodología: se analizaron todas las consultas de intoxicaciones que implicaron BZD registradas en la base de datos del Centro de Información y Asesoramiento Toxicológico (CIAT) entre los años 2010 y 2011. Resultados: el total de los agentes tóxicos involucrados en las consultas por intoxicaciones fue de 31.228, de los cuales 18.530 correspondieron a medicamentos. Las BZD representaron el 22,80% (7.123) de los agentes tóxicos y 36,53% (6.769) de los medicamentos. Se registraron 21.452 consultas de presunta intoxicación en las cuales se vinculó a las BZD como agente tóxico implicado en 6.186 (28,80%). Se observó un predominio de intoxicaciones por BZD en adultos (4.578; 74,10%) y en el sexo femenino (4.600; 74,30%). La ingesta intencional de BZD fue la circunstancia de intoxicación más frecuente (89,54%). Clonazepam, diazepam y alprazolam fueron las BZD más frecuentemente implicadas. La totalidad de los casos severos (68; 1,09%) correspondieron a intoxicaciones mixtas, de los cuales cinco fueron fatales. Conclusiones: la casuística nacional de intoxicaciones por BZD no difiere de las reportadas en series internacionales y sigue evidenciando el protagonismo de las BZD en las intoxicaciones medicamentosas agudas. Los datos muestran un alto número de intoxicaciones por este grupo terapéutico que involucra un alto porcentaje de población pediátrica y un bajo número de casos severos, lo que debe hacer centrar el problema desde el consumo y el tipo de uso como factores determinantes de la alta exposición...

The use of benzodiazepine has constantly increased since the 1960s. High exposure to this drug is evident in the large number of benzodiazepine poisoning cases, which represent between 27% and 40% of drug poisoning in international series, as well as in other factors.Objective: to describe the epidemiological profile of benzodiazepine poisoning in our country.Method: all consultations for poisoning involving benzodiazepine that was registered in the database of the Toxicology Assistance and Information Center from 2010 through 2011 were analysed.Results: the total number of toxic agents involved in poisoning consultations was 31,228, 18,530 of which corresponded to drugs. Benzodiazepines accounted for 22.80% (7,123) of toxic agents and 36.3% (6,769) of drugs. Twenty one thousand 452 consultations for presumed intoxication which were associated to benzodiazepines as a toxic agent involved in 6,186 (28.20%) were registered. Benzodiazepine poisoning prevailes in adults (4,578, 74.10%) and women (4,600, 74.30%). Intentional intake of benzodiazepines was the most frequent poisoning event (89.54%). Clonazepam, diazepam and alprazolam were the benzodiazepines involved more often. All acute cases (68, 1.09%) corresponded to combined poisoning, five of which resulted in death.Conclusions: national poisoning casuistic for benzodiazepine matches those reported in international series and still evidences the major role played by benzodiazepines in acute drug poisoning. Data reveal a large number of intoxications involving this therapeutic drug that includes a high percentage of children and a low number of acute cases, what suggests we should focus on consumption and use and type of use as determining factors of the high exposure to thess psychiatric drugs in our population...

Desde a década de 1960 o uso das benzodiazepinas (BZD) vem aumentando constantemente. A alta exposição deste grupo farmacológico pode ser observada, entre outros aspectos, na frequência das intoxicações por BZD, que correspondem a 27%-40% das intoxicações por medicamentos em series internacionais.Objetivo: descrever o perfil epidemiológico das intoxicações por benzodiazepinas no nosso pais.Metodologia: foram analisadas todas as consultas por intoxicações que incluíam BZD registradas na base de dados do CIAT (Centro de Informação e Assessoramento Toxicológico) no período 2010 - 2011.Resultados: foram registradas 31.228 consultas por intoxicações por agentes tóxicos sendo 18530 devidas a medicamentos. As BZD estavam relacionadas com 22,80% (7.123) dos agentes tóxicos e 36,53% (6.769) dos medicamentos. Foram registradas 21.452 consultas de provável intoxicação sendo que as BZD estavam vinculadas como agente tóxico em 6.186 (28,80%). Foi observado um maior número de intoxicações por BZD em adultos (4.578, 74,10%) e em pessoas do sexo feminino (4.600, 74,30%). A ingestão intencional de BZD foi a circunstancia de intoxicação mais frequente (89,54%). Clonazepam, diazepam e alprazolam foram as BZD com maior incidência. Todos os casos graves (68, 1,09%) estavam relacionados com intoxicações mistas, sendo 5 deles fatais.Conclusões: a casuística nacional de intoxicações por BZD não é diferente das relatadas em series internacionais e mostra o protagonismo das BZD nas intoxicações medicamentosas agudas. Os dados mostram um alto número de intoxicações por este grupo terapêutico que relacionado a uma alta porcentagem de população pediátrica e um número baixo de casos graves. Isto deveria fazer com que o problema seja estudado considerando o consumo e o tipo de uso como fatores determinantes da alta exposição a estes psicofármacos na nossa população...

Children's health in Latin America: the influence of environmental exposures.

BACKGROUND: Chronic diseases are increasing among children in Latin America. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS: To examine environmental risk factors for chronic disease in Latin American children and to develop a strategic initiative for control of these exposures, the World Health Organization (WHO) including the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the Collegium Ramazzini, and Latin American scientists reviewed regional and relevant global data. RESULTS: Industrial development and urbanization are proceeding rapidly in Latin America, and environmental pollution has become widespread. Environmental threats to children's health include traditional hazards such as indoor air pollution and drinking-water contamination; the newer hazards of urban air pollution; toxic chemicals such as lead, asbestos, mercury, arsenic, and pesticides; hazardous and electronic waste; and climate change. The mix of traditional and modern hazards varies greatly across and within countries reflecting industrialization, urbanization, and socioeconomic forces. CONCLUSIONS: To control environmental threats to children's health in Latin America, WHO, including PAHO, will focus on the most highly prevalent and serious hazards-indoor and outdoor air pollution, water pollution, and toxic chemicals. Strategies for controlling these hazards include developing tracking data on regional trends in children's environmental health (CEH), building a network of Collaborating Centres, promoting biomedical research in CEH, building regional capacity, supporting development of evidence-based prevention policies, studying the economic costs of chronic diseases in children, and developing platforms for dialogue with relevant stakeholders.

Estudio sobre riesgos y daños en trabajadores de viveros de plantas de eucaliptus / Study of risks and damages found in eucaliptus nursery plant workers

Objetivos: investigar los factores de riesgo y el perfil del estado de salud enfermedad en trabajadores de viveros de plantas de eucaliptus. Métodos: se realizó un estudio epidemiológico observacional transversal. Para ello se aplicaron entrevistas a informantes calificados y a trabajadores, visita a los viveros donde se realizó una observación directa en base a la clasificación de factores de riesgo del modelo obrero italiano, medición cuantitativa de luz, ruido y temperatura, utilización de un método ergonómico para evaluar exposición a sobrecarga física, registro de imágenes y filmografía y aplicación de una historia médico laboral protocolizada. Se trabajó con una población de 84 trabajadores. Los datos se ingresaron a una base de datos estadística para su análisis. Resultados: la antigüedad en el puesto de trabajo tuvo un promedio de 3,7 años. Con la información obtenida se confeccionó un mapa de riesgo donde se destacan los factores de riesgo a los que la mayoría de los trabajadores están expuestos, y los daños a la salud que más frecuentemente se encontraron. Entre estos factores de riesgo predominan los derivados del microambiente como la temperatura, la iluminación, exposición a los rayos solares, factores relacionados a la carga física: posturas y movimientos repetitivos. Los problemas de salud identificados fueron disturbios osteoarticulares, problemas cutáneos y oftalmológicos. Conclusiones: se organizó un plan de vigilancia en salud de los trabajadores basado en el perfil de riesgo y daño encontrado en este colectivo de trabajadores.

Objectives: this paper was intended to investigate the risk factors and the health/ disease status of eucalyptus nursery plant workers, Methods: an observational, cross-sectional epidemiological study was conducted in 84 workers employed in a eucalyptus nursery plant. The methodology included interviews to qualified informants of the company and to workers were made, paying visits to nurseries where direct observation was carried out based on the classification of risk factors of the Italian workers´ model, the quantitative measurement of light, noise and temperature; use of an ergonomic method for assessing exposure to physical stress, filming and image recording as well as implementation of an occupational medical history protocol. Data was entered into a statistical database for analysis. Results: with the information obtained, a risk map was made highlighting the risk factors to which most workers are exposed and the health hazards that are most frequently found. Among these risk factors are those derived from the microenvironment such as temperature, lighting, exposure to sunlight, physical workload (postures, repetitive movements). The most common health problems were musculoskeletal disorders, cutaneous and ophthalmological problems. Conclusions: a surveillance plan for health monitoring was organized on the basis of the risk and hazard profile found in this study.

[Cocaine base paste: experience from the Montevideo Poison Control Center]. / Pasta base de cocaína: experiencia del Centro de Información y Asesoramiento Toxicológico.

BACKGROUND: In Uruguay, cocaine base paste (CBP, pasta base) is a widely used form of cocaine. The aim of our study is to determine the main clinical characteristics of CBP abusers. METHODS: Retrospective, single-center study of consultations at the Montevideo Poison Control Center between January 1, 2004 and December 31, 2005. RESULTS: One hundred and thirteen consultations were included, with an average age of 22 years (+ - 0.5 years) and a female-male sex ratio of 1:4.3. The consultations were related to drug overdose (77%), suicide attempt (16.8%), and wanting to give up CBP use (6.2%). In 48.1% the time elapsed since inhalation of CBP was less than 6 hours. Doses varied between 0.5 gr. and 25 gr. Use of other drugs at the same time, such as alcohol, marijuana or benzodiazepines, was common (51 cases). The symptoms most frequently observed were neuropsychiatric and cardiovascular, followed by respiratory symptoms. In 16.8% of patients, reason for the consultation was intentional acute ingestion of drugs, considered as a suicide attempt, occurring within a few hours of drug consumption. DISCUSSION: CBP users are mostly young males. Although clinical findings are compatible with those for cocaine abuse, euphoria is a major clinical feature in CBP abusers. The presence of respiratory symptoms reflects the complications associated with the ingestion route. Suicide attempts occurring within a few hours of CBP confirm the high prevalence of suicidal ideation reported by other authors. cocaine base paste, clinical features, suicide attempts.

Vigilancia de la exposición a radiaciones ionizantes en el personal universitario de la salud / Surveillance of the exposure to ionizing radiations of the university health staff

Introducción El programa de vigilancia de exposición a radiaciones ionizantes en el ambiente laboral involucra las dosimetrías personales de los trabajadores y su evaluación comparativa con los valores de referencia, lo que permite priorizar, y por lo tanto, tomar acciones de prevención eficaces. Objetivos Presentar los resultados del programa de vigilancia en salud ocupacional de los trabajadores universitarios expuestos a radiaciones ionizantes durante el periodo 2003-2006. Métodos Estudio descriptivo retrospectivo longitudinal. Los datos dosimétricos fueron obtenidos de fuentes secundarias, a partir de la base de datos del programa de vigilancia dosimétrica de la Universidad de la República. La valoración de la exposición se realizó mediante dosimetría de film. Se analizaron los registros de los valores dosimétricos personales en el marco del programa de vigilancia, de los años 2003, 2004, 2005 y 2006. Resultados Se observaron valores dosimétricos que no superaron los valores de referencia admitidos como máximos anuales. La dosis anual máxima recibida fue de 15,72 milisieverts, correspondiente a las áreas de diagnostico y tratamiento especializado del Hospital Universitario. Conclusiones La vigilancia de la exposición ha permitido orientar el control médico periódico específico así como extremar acciones de radioprotección. En este sentido, el departamento de Salud Ocupacional está realizando tareas de educación y difusión del programa para reforzar las medidas de prevención.

Introduction The surveillance program for the workers exposed to ionizing radiations involves personal dosimetries of exposed workers, and their assessment and comparison with the reference values, which allow prioritizing and taking effective preventive actions. Objectives To present the occupational health surveillance program for university workers exposed to ionizing radiations during the 2003-2006 period. Methods Longitudinal and descriptive study. Dosimetric data were obtained from secondary source, on the basis of the dosimetric surveillance program in the University of the Republic. The exposure was evaluated through film dosimetry. The personal dosimetric value records were analyzed within the surveillance program in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006. Results It was observed that the dosimetric values did not exceed the reference values accepted as annual maximum figures. The annual maximum dose received was 15,72 milisieverts in the diagnosis and specialized treatment areas of the university hospital. Conclusions Surveillance of exposure to radiations allowed directing the specific systematic medical check-ups as well as stretching the taking of radioprotective measures. In this regard, the Department of Occupational Health is carrying out educational tasks and disseminating the surveillance program in order to reinforce preventive measures.