Development of comprehensive functional genomic screens to identify novel mediators of osteoarthritis.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to develop high-throughput assays for the analysis of major chondrocyte functions that are important in osteoarthritis (OA) pathogenesis and methods for high-level gene expression and analysis in primary human chondrocytes. METHODS: In the first approach, complementary DNA (cDNA) libraries were constructed from OA cartilage RNA and full-length clones were selected. These cDNAs were transferred into a retroviral vector using Gateway Technology. Full-length clones were over-expressed in human articular chondrocytes (HAC) by retroviral-mediated gene transfer. The induction of OA-associated markers, including aggrecanase-1 (Agg-1), matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), collagen IIA and collagen X was measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (QPCR). Induction of a marker gene was verified by independent isolation of 2-3 clones per gene, re-transfection followed by QPCR as well as nucleotide sequencing. In the second approach, whole cDNA libraries were transduced into chondrocytes and screened for chondrocyte cluster formation in three-dimensional agarose cultures. RESULTS: Using green fluorescent protein (eGFP) as a marker gene, it was shown that the retroviral method has a transduction efficiency of >90%. A total of 40 verified hits were identified in the QPCR screen. The first set of 19 hits coordinately induced iNOS, COX-2, Agg-1 and MMP-13. The most potent of these genes were the tyrosine kinases Axl and Tyro-3, receptor interacting kinase-2 (RIPK2), tumor necrosis factor receptor 1A (TNFR1A), fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and its receptor FGFR, MUS81 endonuclease and Sentrin/SUMO-specific protease 3. The second set of seven hits induced both Agg-1 and MMP-13 but none of the other markers. Five of these seven genes regulate the phosphoinositide-3-kinase pathway. The most potently induced OA marker was iNOS. This marker was induced 20-500 fold by seven genes. Collagen IIA was also induced by seven genes, the most potent being transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta)-stimulated protein TSC22, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and splicing factor 3a. This screening assay did not identify inducers of collagen X. The second chondrocyte cluster formation screen identified 14 verified hits. Most of the genes inducing cluster formation were kinases. Additional genes had not been previously known to regulate chondrocyte cluster formation or any other chondrocyte function. CONCLUSIONS: The methods developed in this study can be applied to screen for genes capable of inducing an OA-like phenotype in chondrocytes on a genome-wide scale and identify novel mediators of OA pathogenesis. Thus, coordinated functional genomic approaches can be used to delineate key genes and pathways activated in complex human diseases such as OA.

Cytotoxic potential of proinflammatory cytokines: combined deletion of TNF receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2 prevents motoneuron cell death after facial axotomy in adult mouse.

Neural injury is known to trigger inflammatory changes, including the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1-beta (IL1beta), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha), and interferon-gamma (IFNgamma) [G. Raivich, L. L. Jones, C. U. A. Kloss, A. Werner, H. Neumann, and G. W. Kreutzberg, 1998, J Neurosci, 18: 5804-5816] that may play a pivotal role in mediating the cellular response in the affected brain tissue. Here we examined the effects of transgenic deletion of receptors for these cytokines on neuronal cell loss in the adult mouse facial motor nucleus after a peripheral, facial nerve cut. Homozygous deletion of IL1 receptor 1 (IL1R1), TNF receptor 1 or 2 (TNFR1 or TNFR2), or IFNgamma receptor 1 (IFNgammaR1) alone had no effect but combined deletion of TNFR1 and TNFR2 caused a striking absence of alphaX beta2 integrin/IBA1-double-labeled, phagocytic microglial nodules in the axotomized facial motor nucleus 14 days after nerve cut. Moreover, this combined deletion also led to an almost complete prevention of cell loss by Day 29. Additional neuronal cell counts at Day 60 revealed a second phase of motoneuron cell disappearance, which did not depend on the presence of TNF receptors. However, there was still the same 22% difference in the total number of motoneurons between the wild-type and TNFR1 & 2-deficient mice, underlining the role of TNF ligands and both TNF receptors in mediating the early phase of neuronal cell loss after traumatic injury.

Identification of a novel beta-chemokine, MEC, down-regulated in primary breast tumors.

Chemokines represent a family of low molecular weight secreted proteins that primarily function in the activation and migration of leukocytes. A number of additional functions of chemokines have also been identified including growth of tumor cells, angiogenesis and development. An iterative search for new chemokines has identified a cDNA that encodes a new member of the CC(beta) chemokine family. The gene has been named MEC, for mammary enriched chemokine. MEC expression was found at high levels in many mammary gland samples and was also detected at lower levels in several other epithelial-enriched tissues, such as salivary gland, colon, and prostate. Northern blot analysis demonstrates that MEC expression was highly reduced or eliminated in a majority of human breast tumors as compared to normal adjacent tissue. In situ hybridization demonstrates that MEC was abundantly expressed in normal mammary ductal epithelium, but expression was absent or reduced in various mammary tumor types of epithelial origin. These observations suggest that MEC may be useful as a diagnostic tool in oncology, and may play a role in regulating mammary carcinogenesis. The absence of MEC may also contribute to the host's immune response to tumors.

Neonatally induced inactivation of the vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 gene impairs B cell localization and T cell-dependent humoral immune response.

Vascular cellular adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 is a membrane-bound cellular adhesion molecule that mediates adhesive interactions between hematopoietic progenitor cells and stromal cells in the bone marrow (BM) and between leukocytes and endothelial as well as dendritic cells. Since VCAM-1-deficient mice die embryonically, conditional VCAM-1 mutant mice were generated to analyze the in vivo function of this adhesion molecule. Here we show that interferon-induced Cre-loxP-mediated deletion of the VCAM-1 gene after birth efficiently ablates expression of VCAM-1 in most tissues like, for example, BM, lymphoid organs, and lung, but not in brain. Induced VCAM-1 deficiency leads to a reduction of immature B cells in the BM and to an increase of these cells in peripheral blood but not in lymphoid organs. Mature recirculating B cells are reduced in the BM. In a migration assay, the number of mature B cells that appears in the BM after intravenous injection is decreased. In addition, the humoral immune response to a T cell-dependent antigen is impaired. VCAM-1 serves an important role for B cell localization and the T cell-dependent humoral immune response.

Modulation of the acute phase response by altered expression of the IL-1 type 1 receptor or IL-1ra.

A complete understanding of the role for endogenously produced interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) in the acute phase response to inflammation remains unknown. In the present studies, knockout mice lacking either a functional IL-1 type I receptor (IL-1RI(-/-)), a TNF type I receptor (TNFR-I(-/-)), or both IL-1 type I and TNF type I receptors (IL-1RI(-/-)/TNFR-I(-/-)) received a turpentine abscess. Additional mice deficient in IL-1ra protein (IL-1ra(-/-)) or overexpressing IL-1ra protein (IL-1ra(tg)) were similarly treated. After a turpentine abscess, IL-1 receptor knockout mice exhibited an attenuated inflammatory response compared with wild-type or animals lacking a functional TNFR-I. Mice overexpressing IL-1ra also had an attenuated hepatic acute phase protein response, whereas IL-1ra knockout mice had a significantly greater hepatic acute phase response. We conclude that the inflammatory response to a turpentine abscess is the result of a balance between IL-1ra expression and IL-1 binding to its type I receptor. Endogenously produced IL-1ra plays a central role in mitigating the magnitude of the IL-1-mediated inflammatory response and, ultimately, the outcome to a turpentine abscess.

The induction of EAE is only partially dependent on TNF receptor signaling but requires the IL-1 type I receptor.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis develops in mice immunized with CNS antigens. To elucidate the role that specific proinflammatory cytokines play in the induction of this process we examined the development of EAE in mice with targeted disruptions of the TNF p55 or p75 or the IL-1 p80 receptors. EAE developed in mice with either one or both TNF receptors deleted although the onset of disease in mice with the p55 receptor deleted was delayed. However, mice with a deletion of the IL-1 p80 receptor failed to develop any inflammatory lesions in the CNS or evidence of clinical EAE. Thus we conclude that TNF or its receptors contribute to, but are not necessary for, the induction of EAE while the IL-1 p80 receptor is absolutely required. The p55 TNF receptor plays a role in determining the onset of disease and its severity.

IL-1 receptor accessory protein is an essential component of the IL-1 receptor.

The recently described IL-1R accessory protein (IL-1R AcP) interacts with IL-1beta and the IL-1 type-IR (IL-1RI), but an essential requirement for IL-1R AcP in IL-1 signaling in vitro has not been established and its role in vivo has not been examined. In this study, IL-1R AcP-deficient mice and fibroblasts were produced and characterized. All IL-1 agonists bound to IL-1R AcP-deficient cells through the type I IL-1R, but failed to activate gene expression through either the nuclear factor-kappaB or AP-1-dependent signaling pathways. Absence of IL-1R AcP differentially affected the affinity for IL-1 ligands. IL-1R AcP-deficient fibroblasts bound murine IL-1alpha and human IL-1R antagonist protein (IL-1Ra) with only moderately reduced affinity when compared with wild-type cells, whereas murine IL-1beta affinity was reduced by 70-fold. IL-1 also failed to produce a biologic response in vivo in IL-1R AcP-deficient mice. These data demonstrate that a type I IL-1R/IL-1R AcP complex is required for signaling by all IL-1 agonists and for high affinity binding by IL-1beta. Finally, IL-1R AcP is an essential signal transducing component of the functional IL-1R and should represent a novel target for blocking IL-1 function in human disease.

Noninvasive, in utero imaging of mouse embryonic heart development with 40-MHz echocardiography.

BACKGROUND: The increasing number of transgenic and targeted mutant mice with embryonic cardiac defects has resulted in the need for noninvasive techniques to examine cardiac structure and function in early mouse embryos. We report the first use of a novel 40-MHz ultrasound imaging system in the study of mouse cardiac development in utero. METHODS AND RESULTS: Transabdominal scans of mouse embryos staged between 8.5 and 13.5 days of gestation (E8.5 to E13.5) were obtained in anesthetized mice. Atrial and ventricular contractions could be discerned from E9.5, and changes in cardiac morphology were observed from E9.5 to E13.5. Hyperechoic streaming patterns delineated flow through the umbilical, vitelline, and other major blood vessels. Diastolic and systolic ventricular areas were determined by planimetry of the epicardial borders, and fractional area change was measured as an index of contractile function. Significant increases in ventricular size were documented at each stage between E10.5 and E13.5, and the ability to perform serial imaging studies over 3 days of embryonic development is described. Finally, the detection of vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) homozygous null mutant embryos demonstrates the first example of noninvasive, in utero analysis of cardiac structure and function in a targeted mouse mutant. CONCLUSIONS: We used 40-MHz echocardiography to identify key elements of the early mouse embryonic cardiovascular system and for noninvasive dimensional analysis of developing cardiac ventricles. The ability to perform serial measurements and to detect mutant embryos with cardiac defects highlights the usefulness of the technique for investigating normal and abnormal cardiovascular development.

Enhanced Th2-like responses in IL-1 type 1 receptor-deficient mice.

IL-1 has a number of effects on T cell growth but a specific role for IL-1 in T cell responses in vivo has not been elucidated. In this study the role of IL-1 in Th1/Th2 responses was examined in mice deficient for the IL-1 type 1 receptor (IL-1RI-/-) during cutaneous Leishmania major infection or following immunization with keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH). After inoculation of L. major stationary phase promastigotes into the hind footpad, both IL-1RI-/- and wild-type (WT) mice developed small lesions which resolved spontaneously. Lymph node cells from infected IL-1RI-/- mice produced significantly more IL-4 and IL-10 than those from WT mice following antigenic stimulation in vitro. Splenocytes from IL-1RI-/- and WT mice showed similar levels of antigen-induced proliferation. In contrast, splenocyte cultures from the IL-1RI-/- mice contained significantly more IL-4 than those from WT mice. Similar results were also obtained after immunization with KLH. While lymph node cells from both IL-1RI-/- and WT mice displayed similar levels of KLH-specific proliferation, those from IL-1RI-/- mice produced significantly more IL-4 than those from WT mice. Conversely, antigen-stimulated lymph node cells from WT mice secreted significantly greater amounts of IFN-gamma as compared with those from IL-1RI-/- mice. These data indicate that while IL-1 is not required for mounting an immune response or antigen-dependent proliferation, it appears to be required for normal regulation of Th1/Th2 responses and may function to negatively regulate IL-4 expression.

SEK1/MKK4 is required for maintenance of a normal peripheral lymphoid compartment but not for lymphocyte development.

SAPK is a member of the group of evolutionary conserved stress-activated kinases that mediate control of cellular death and proliferation. In lymphocytes, the SAPK pathway has been implicated in signaling from antigen, costimulatory, and death receptors; SEK1, which directly activates SAPK, is required for early embryonic development and has also been reported to be essential for normal lymphocyte development. In contrast to the latter findings, we have used RAG-2-deficient blastocyst complementation to show that SEK1-deficient embryonic stem cells support unimpaired T and B lymphocyte development. Moreover, mature SEK1-deficient lymphocytes are capable of SAPK activation. Surprisingly, however, aging SEK1-deficient chimeric mice frequently develop lymphadenopathy and polyclonal B and T cell expansions. Thus, SEK1 is not required for lymphocyte development, but is required for maintaining peripheral lymphoid homeostasis.

SEK1 deficiency reveals mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade crossregulation and leads to abnormal hepatogenesis.

SEK1 (MKK4/JNKK) is a mitogen-activated protein kinase activator that has been shown to participate in vitro in two stress-activated cascades terminating with the SAPK and p38 kinases. To define the role of SEK1 in vivo, we studied stress-induced signaling in SEK1(-/-) embryonic stem and fibroblast cells and evaluated the phenotype of SEK1(-/-) mouse embryos during development. Studies of SEK1(-/-) embryonic stem cells demonstrated defects in stimulated SAPK phosphorylation but not in the phosphorylation of p38 kinase. In contrast, SEK1(-/-) fibroblasts exhibited defects in both SAPK and p38 phosphorylation, demonstrating that crosstalk exists between the stress-activated cascades. Tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 stimulation of both stress-activated cascades are severely affected in the SEK1(-/-) fibroblast cells. SEK1 deficiency leads to embryonic lethality after embryonic day 12.5 and is associated with abnormal liver development. This phenotype is similar to c-jun null mouse embryos and suggests that SEK1 is required for phosphorylation and activation of c-jun during the organo-genesis of the liver.

Protein aggregates seem to play a key role among the parameters influencing the antigenicity of interferon alpha (IFN-alpha) in normal and transgenic mice.

PURPOSE: During long-term treatment of various malignant or viral diseases with IFN-alpha up to 20% of patients develop anti-IFN-alpha antibodies for as yet unknown reasons. METHODS: To address this issue, a mouse model using Balb/C mice was established and the relevance of several potentially anti-IFN-alpha antibodies inducing factors was studied. RESULTS: The model revealed that both a higher frequency of injections and a higher dosage of IFN-alpha were more immunogenic and that the route of administration affected the antibody response to IFN-alpha. The intrinsic immunostimulatory activity of IFN-alpha itself also enhanced the immune response. IFN-alpha protein aggregates (IFN-alpha-IFN-alpha and human serum albumin (HSA)-IFN-alpha aggregates), which were recently identified in all marketed IFN-alpha products, were significantly more immunogenic than IFN-alpha monomers. These aggregates broke the tolerance against human IFN-alpha monomers in human IFN-alpha transgenic mice. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these animal studies it is proposed that the immune response to IFN-alpha in humans is most probably elicited by a combination of several factors among which IFN-alpha protein aggregates seem to play a key role.

Cre-mediated generation of a VCAM-1 null allele in transgenic mice.

A conditional null allele for VCAM-1 was generated in mice through a one step ES cell selection procedure by flanking the proximal promoter and exons 1 and 2 with loxP sites. The ES cells were used to create chimeric mice, which were then used to produce mice homozygous for the VCAM-1 conditional null, or floxed allele. Although the PGKneo cassette was retained in the promoter, the homozygous mice produced levels of VCAM-1 transcripts similar to that seen in wild-type mice. Homozygous VCAMflox/flox mice were mated to transgenic lines of mice expressing the cre gene under control of the murine platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1) promoter. Surprisingly, the VCAMflox allele in all tissues examined from mice that inherited the cre-transgene had underwent complete excision of the floxed VCAM-1 sequences. The 'deleted' VCAM-1 allele (VCAMdel) was stably inherited, even in those mice that did not inherit the cre transgene, indicating the recombination occurs at an early stage of development prior to germ cell development. Thus the cre mice can be used for ubiquitous gene rearrangement in vivo. The data also suggest a novel simplified strategy for using the Cre/loxP system in vivo, in which a single ES cell and line of mice can be used to create mice carrying either a null or conditional null allele.

Absence of IL-1 signaling and reduced inflammatory response in IL-1 type I receptor-deficient mice.

IL-1alpha and IL-1beta are potent inflammatory cytokines that contribute to a number of normal physiologic processes and to the development of a number of inflammatory diseases. Two IL-1R, the type I and type II receptors, have been identified. This work describes the derivation and characterization of mice deficient in expression of the type I IL-1R (IL-1RI). IL-1RI-deficient mice were viable and fertile, but failed to respond to IL-1 in a variety of assays, including IL-1-induced IL-6 and E-selectin expression and IL-1-induced fever. Similar to IL-1beta-deficient mice, IL-1RI-deficient mice had a reduced acute phase response to turpentine. In contrast, IL-1RI-deficient mice had a reduced delayed-type hypersensitivity response and were highly susceptible to infection by Listeria monocytogenes. These data demonstrate that the IL-1RI is essential for all IL-1-mediated signaling events examined, and that both IL-1alpha and IL-1beta are critical to the animals' response to injury and infection. These data also demonstrate that IL-1 function is not required for normal development or homeostasis.

Interferon immunogenicity: preclinical evaluation of interferon-alpha 2a.

A preclinical evaluation of the immunogenicity of various preparations of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) was performed with in vitro and in vivo animal models. The distribution of genes for IFN-alpha 2a, IFN-alpha 2b, and IFN-alpha 2c in various cell populations and the response of human T cell clones to IFN-alpha peptides were investigated. The immunogenicity of IFN-alpha in IFN-alpha 2b transgenic mice and factors that influence the immunogenicity of IFN-alpha in normal mice were also studied. The genes for IFN-alpha 2a and IFN-alpha 2b were found in KG-1 cells, whereas IFN-alpha 2b and IFN-alpha 2c genes were present in Namalwa cells. No difference in proliferation of human T cells, T cell lines, or T cell clones could be obtained with IFN-alpha peptides. In transgenic mice bearing the human IFN-alpha 2b gene, no antibody response was obtained following immunization with either IFN-alpha 2a or IFN-alpha 2b. Normal mice immunized with either IFN-alpha 2a or IFN-alpha 2b produced equivalent titers of antibodies, which cross-reacted with both IFNs. Studies evaluating the relative immunogenicity of IFN-alpha in normal mice demonstrated that a number of treatment and host variables can modulate immunogenicity of IFN-alpha preparations.

Heterogeneity of expression of E- and P-selectins in vivo.

A novel technique involving radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies was used to characterize and compare the expression of E- and P-selectin on unstimulated, histamine-challenged, and endotoxin-challenged endothelial cells in various tissues of the mouse. Under unstimulated conditions, E-selectin was absent in all organs, but significant expression of P-selectin was observed in several organs. Histamine induced a rapid time-dependent upregulation of P-selectin, with the largest responses observed in mesentery and lung. Significant fold elevations in P-selectin expression occurred as early as 5 minutes after the histamine injection and remained elevated up to 1 hour. Histamine-induced P-selectin upregulation was inhibited by the H1 receptor antagonist diphenhydramine, whereas the H2 receptor antagonist cimetidine had no effect. Endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide [LPS]) also induced a time-dependent expression of P-selectin that reached a maximum between 4 and 8 hours after endotoxin administration. LPS-induced upregulation of P-selectin was greatest in heart and stomach, which exhibited insignificant constitutive expression of P-selectin. LPS also induced a time-dependent upregulation of E-selectin, with maximal expression occurring 3 to 5 hours after intraperitoneal administration. The lung and small intestine exhibited the largest responses to LPS challenge. Histamine administration did not affect E-selectin expression in any tissue. E- and P-selectin-deficient mice were used to test the specificity of monoclonal antibody binding in unstimulated, histamine-challenged, and LPS-stimulated tissues. Vascular binding of the radiolabeled E-selectin and P-selectin monoclonal antibodies was not observed in the respective deficient mice. These findings suggest that P-selectin is constitutively expressed on vascular endothelium in some tissues of the mouse and that there are significant regional differences in the magnitude and time course of histamine- and endotoxin-induced P-selectin expression. In contrast, E-selectin appears to be absent on unstimulated vascular endothelium but is upregulated within 3 hours after the administration of endotoxin in most tissues.

Reproduction in mice lacking a functional type 1 IL-1 receptor.

Growth factors and cytokines have been identified in having critical roles at mediating maternal-fetal interactions during pregnancy, with interleukin-1 being a recently implicated factor. Previous experiments indicated that repeated intraperitoneal injections of the Il-1 receptor antagonist (Il-1Ra), which inhibits binding of interleukin-1 (Il-1) to the type 1 Il-1 receptor (Il-1Rt1) blocks blastocyst implantation in superovulated mice. To gain a greater insight into the role of Il-1 receptor in implantation, we analyzed the reproduction of mice deficient for the Il-1Rt1. Our results show that mice lacking this receptor do not exhibit any profound alterations in their reproduction, apart from a slight reduction in mean litter size. Furthermore, repeated intraperitoneal injections of either IL-1Ra or the monoclonal antibody 35F5, which also blocks ligand binding to the Il-1Rt1, did not affect embryo implantation in either wild type and Il-1 receptor deficient mice.

Identification and characterization of a novel surface antigen gene induced in mast cells activated through the high affinity IgE receptor.

In an effort to isolate novel genes involved in inflammation and/or mast cell activation, we have used a combination of differential screening and subtractive hybridization to isolate genes whose expression are induced upon activation of a transformed rat mast cell line. One of the isolated clones, pMCA-32, contained an open reading frame of 278 amino acids that included a putative hydrophobic transmembrane domain, a cysteine rich Ig-like extracellular domain, and a cytoplasmic domain containing three consensus SH2-domain phosphotyrosine binding sites. The MCA-32 gene is also highly conserved between rat and mouse, with the two coding regions being 73% identical. Although the MCA-32 coding region did not contain an obvious signal peptide, MCA-32 protein was detected on the surface of rat mast cells, and the cloned cDNA produced a cell surface protein when expressed in COS-7 cells. MCA-32 RNA from both mouse and rat undergoes alternative splicing, producing an mRNA containing an in-frame deletion of the TM domain, suggesting that a form of MCA-32 protein may be secreted. MCA-32 mRNA expression was up-regulated upon activation of RBL-2H3 cells and was highly abundant in primary peritoneal mast cells. Expression of MCA-32 RNA was only observed in primary and transformed mast cells from rat, while in the mouse MCA-32, RNA was also produced in significant amounts by a number of transformed monocyte cell lines. Thus, MCA-32 is a novel surface protein whose structure and expression suggest roles in the development and/or activation of mast cells and monocytes.

Molecular cloning and characterization of a second subunit of the interleukin 1 receptor complex.

A monoclonal antibody (mAb) was isolated that blocked the binding and bioactivity of both human and murine interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 beta) on murine IL-1 receptor-bearing cells. This mAb recognized a protein that was distinct from the Type I and Type II IL-1 receptors, suggesting that an additional protein exists that is involved in IL-1 biological responses. By expression cloning in COS-7 cells, we have isolated a cDNA from mouse 3T3-LI cells encoding this putative auxiliary molecule, which we term the IL-1 receptor accessory protein (IL-1R AcP). Sequence analysis of the cDNA predicts an open reading frame that encodes a 570-amino acid protein with a molecular mass of approximately 66 kDa. The IL-1R AcP is a member of the Ig superfamily by analysis of its putative extracellular domain and also bears limited homology throughout the protein to both Type I and Type II IL-1 receptors. Northern analysis reveals that murine IL-1R AcP mRNA is expressed in many tissues and appears to be regulated by IL-1. In mammalian cells expressing natural or recombinant Type I IL-1R and IL-1R AcP, the accessory protein forms a complex with the Type I IL-1R and either IL-1 alpha or IL-1 beta but not IL-1ra. The recombinant accessory protein also increases the binding affinity of the recombinant Type I IL-1R for IL-1 beta when the two receptor proteins are coexpressed. Therefore, the functional IL-1 receptor appears to be a complex composed of at least two subunits.

Defective development of the embryonic and extraembryonic circulatory systems in vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM-1) deficient mice.

VCAM-1 is a cytokine-inducible cell surface protein capable of mediating adhesion to leukocytes expressing alpha 4 integrins. Mice deficient in VCAM-1 expression were produced by targeted homologous recombination in ES cells. VCAM-1-deficient embryos were not viable and exhibited either of two distinct phenotypes. Approximately half of the embryos died before embryonic day 11.5 and exhibited a severe defect in placental development in which the allantois failed to fuse with the chorion. The remaining VCAM-1-deficient embryos survived to embryonic day 11.5-12.5 and displayed several abnormalities in their developing hearts including a reduction of the compact layer of the ventricular myocardium and intraventricular septum. The hearts also contained significant amounts of blood in the pericardial space and lacked an epicardium. alpha 4 and VCAM-1 were found to be expressed in wild-type embryos in a reciprocal fashion in the chorion and allantois and in the epicardium and the underlying myocardium, although VCAM-1 was expressed in the intraventricular septum in the absence of adjacent alpha 4-expressing cells. These data suggest important roles for VCAM-1 and alpha 4 in the development of the placenta and the heart.