Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Altered Immune System Leading to Susceptibility to Pathogens, Especially Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

There has been an alarming increase in the incidence of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) worldwide. Uncontrolled T2DM can lead to alterations in the immune system, increasing the risk of susceptibility to infections such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb). Altered immune responses could be attributed to factors such as the elevated glucose concentration, leading to the production of Advanced Glycation End products (AGE) and the constant inflammation, associated with T2DM. This production of AGE leads to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the use of the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) via the Polyol pathway, and overall diminished levels of glutathione (GSH) and GSH-producing enzymes in T2DM patients, which alters the cytokine profile and changes the immune responses within these patients. Thus, an understanding of the intricate pathways responsible for the pathogenesis and complications in T2DM, and the development of strategies to enhance the immune system, are both urgently needed to prevent co-infections and co-morbidities in individuals with T2DM.

Trends in Treatment Patterns and Clinical Outcomes in Young Women Diagnosed With Ductal Carcinoma In Situ.

BACKGROUND: Although it is known that the risk of a second breast cancer event among young women diagnosed with ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is higher than in older women, the effect of current treatment options on long-term outcomes in this subgroup of women remains poorly defined. We aimed to evaluate national treatment trends and determine their effect on second breast cancer risk and overall survival among young women diagnosed with DCIS. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results data from 1998 to 2011 were used to analyze 3648 DCIS patients younger than age 40 years. RESULTS: Among all treatment options, breast-conserving surgery (BCS) with radiation therapy (BCS + RT) was the most prevalent (36.1%) followed by mastectomy (MTX) without contralateral prophylactic MTX (CPM; 25.8%), BCS alone (22.2%), and MTX with CPM (15.8%). Risk of a second ipsilateral event was > 5-fold and > 2-fold lower within 2 years and 5 years of initial DCIS diagnosis, respectively, in women who received BCS + RT compared with BCS alone; and overall survival was 3-fold higher in women who received BCS + RT. However, MTX with or without CPM did not show an increase in overall survival compared with BCS + RT. In addition, although the percentage of young women who receive MTX with CPM has increased in recent years, MTX with CPM did not show an increased benefit in survival compared with MTX without CPM. CONCLUSION: The results of our study suggest that more aggressive treatments do not offer survival benefits over BCS + RT; thus, clinical treatment options in young women with DCIS should be carefully considered.