Chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 4 in cell fate decisions.

Loss of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) in the cochlea causes hearing loss. Understanding the mechanisms of cell fate transition accelerates efforts that employ directed differentiation and lineage conversion to repopulate lost SGNs. Proposed strategies to regenerate SGNs rely on altering cell fate by activating transcriptional regulatory networks, but repressing networks for alternative cell lineages is also essential. Epigenomic changes during cell fate transitions suggest that CHD4 represses gene expression by altering the chromatin status. Despite limited direct investigations, human genetic studies implicate CHD4 function in the inner ear. The possibility of CHD4 in suppressing alternative cell fates to promote inner ear regeneration is discussed.

shox2 is required for vestibular statoacoustic neuron development.

Homeobox genes act at the top of genetic hierarchies to regulate cell specification and differentiation during embryonic development. We identified the short stature homeobox domain 2 (shox2) transcription factor that is required for vestibular neuron development. shox2 transcripts are initially localized to the otic placode of the developing inner ear where neurosensory progenitors reside. To study shox2 function, we generated CRISPR-mediated mutant shox2 fish. Mutant embryos display behaviors associated with vestibular deficits and showed reduced number of anterior statoacoustic ganglion neurons that innervate the utricle, the vestibular organ in zebrafish. Moreover, a shox2-reporter fish showed labeling of developing statoacoustic ganglion neurons in the anterior macula of the otic vesicle. Single cell RNA-sequencing of cells from the developing otic vesicle of shox2 mutants revealed altered otic progenitor profiles, while single molecule in situ assays showed deregulated levels of transcripts in developing neurons. This study implicates a role for shox2 in development of vestibular but not auditory statoacoustic ganglion neurons.

Single-Cell Fluorescence Analysis of Pseudotemporal Ordered Cells Provides Protein Expression Dynamics for Neuronal Differentiation.

Stem cell replacement therapy is a potential method for repopulating lost spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) in the inner ear. Efficacy of cell replacement relies on proper differentiation. Defining the dynamic expression of different transcription factors essential for neuronal differentiation allows us to monitor the progress and determine when the protein functions in differentiating stem cell cultures. Using immortalized multipotent otic progenitors (iMOPs) as a cellular system for SGN differentiation, a method for determining dynamic protein expression from heterogeneous cultures was developed. iMOP-derived neurons were identified and ordered by increasing neurite lengths to create a pseudotime course that reflects the differentiation trajectory. The fluorescence intensities of transcription factors SOX2 and NEUROD1 from individual pseudotemporally ordered cells were measured. Individual cells were grouped by K-means clustering and the mean fluorescence intensity for each cluster determined. Curve fit of the mean fluorescence represented the protein expression dynamics in differentiating cells. The method provides information about protein expression dynamics in differentiating stem cell cultures.

Initiating Differentiation in Immortalized Multipotent Otic Progenitor Cells.

Use of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) or embryonic stem cells (ESC) for cell replacement therapies holds great promise. Several limitations including low yields and heterogeneous populations of differentiated cells hinder the progress of stem cell therapies. A fate restricted immortalized multipotent otic progenitor (iMOP) cell line was generated to facilitate efficient differentiation of large numbers of functional hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons (SGN) for inner ear cell replacement therapies. Starting from dissociated cultures of single iMOP cells, protocols that promote cell cycle exit and differentiation by basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) withdrawal were described. A significant decrease in proliferating cells after bFGF withdrawal was confirmed using an EdU cell proliferation assay. Concomitant with a decrease in proliferation, successful differentiation resulted in expression of molecular markers and morphological changes. Immunostaining of Cdkn1b (p27(KIP)) and Cdh1 (E-cadherin) in iMOP-derived otospheres was used as an indicator for differentiation into inner ear sensory epithelia while immunostaining of Cdkn1b and Tubb3 (neuronal ß-tubulin) was used to identify iMOP-derived neurons. Use of iMOP cells provides an important tool for understanding cell fate decisions made by inner ear neurosensory progenitors and will help develop protocols for generating large numbers of iPSC or ESC-derived hair cells and SGNs. These methods will accelerate efforts for generating otic cells for replacement therapies.