Formation and dissociation of M1 muscarinic receptor dimers seen by total internal reflection fluorescence imaging of single molecules.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of transmembrane signaling proteins in the human genome. Events in the GPCR signaling cascade have been well characterized, but the receptor composition and its membrane distribution are still generally unknown. Although there is evidence that some members of the GPCR superfamily exist as constitutive dimers or higher oligomers, interpretation of the results has been disputed, and recent studies indicate that monomeric GPCRs may also be functional. Because there is controversy within the field, to address the issue we have used total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) in living cells to visualize thousands of individual molecules of a model GPCR, the M(1) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. By tracking the position of individual receptors over time, their mobility, clustering, and dimerization kinetics could be directly determined with a resolution of approximately 30 ms and approximately 20 nm. In isolated CHO cells, receptors are randomly distributed over the plasma membrane. At any given time, approximately 30% of the receptor molecules exist as dimers, and we found no evidence for higher oligomers. Two-color TIRFM established the dynamic nature of dimer formation with M(1) receptors undergoing interconversion between monomers and dimers on the timescale of seconds.

Determination of allosteric interactions using radioligand-binding techniques.

Methods are presented for identifying and quantifying allosteric interactions of G-protein-coupled receptors with labeled and unlabeled ligands using radioligand-binding assays. The experimental designs and analyses are based on the simplest ternary complex allosteric model.

Progress toward a high-affinity allosteric enhancer at muscarinic M1 receptors.

Loss of forebrain acetylcholine is an early neurochemical lesion in Alzheimer's disease (AD). As muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are involved in memory and cognition, a muscarinic agonist could therefore provide a "replacement therapy" in this disease. However, muscarinic receptors occur throughout the CNS and the periphery. A selective locus of action of a muscarinic agonist is therefore crucial in order to avoid intolerable side effects. The five subtypes of muscarinic receptors, M1-M5, have distinct regional distributions with M2 and M3 receptors mediating most of the peripheral effects. M1 receptors are the major receptor subtype in the cortex and hippocampus-the two brain regions most associated with memory and cognition. This localization has led to a, so far unsuccessful, search for a truly M1-selective muscarinic agonist. However, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, such as donepezil (Aricept), which potentiate cholinergic neurotransmission, do have a therapeutic role in the management of AD and so the M1 receptor remains a viable therapeutic target. Our approach is to develop muscarinic allosteric enhancers-compounds that bind to the receptor at an "allosteric" site, which is distinct from the "primary" site to which ACh binds, and which enhance ACh affinity (or efficacy). Having discovered that a commercially available compound, WIN 62577, is an allosteric enhancer with micromolar potency at M3 receptors, we report here some results of a chemical synthesis project to develop this hit. Modification of WIN 62577 has led to compounds with over 1000-fold increased affinity but, so far, none of these extremely potent compounds are allosteric enhancers.

Interactions of orthosteric and allosteric ligands with [3H]dimethyl-W84 at the common allosteric site of muscarinic M2 receptors.

An optimized assay for the binding of [3H]dimethyl-W84 to its allosteric site on M2 muscarinic receptors has been used to directly measure the affinities of allosteric ligands. Their potencies agree with those deduced indirectly by their modulation of the equilibrium binding and kinetics of [3H]N-methylscopolamine ([3H]NMS) binding to the orthosteric site. The affinities and cooperativities of orthosteric antagonists with [3H]dimethyl-W84 have also been quantitated. These affinities agree with those measured directly in a competition assay using [3H]NMS. All these data are compatible with the predictions of the allosteric ternary complex model. The association and dissociation kinetics of [3H]dimethyl-W84 are rapid but the estimate of its association rate constant is nevertheless comparable with that found for the orthosteric radioligand, [3H]NMS. This is unexpected, given that the allosteric site to which [3H]dimethyl-W84 binds is thought to be located on the external face of the receptor and above the [3H]NMS binding site that is buried within the transmembrane helices. The atypical allosteric ligands tacrine and 4,4'-bis-[(2,6-dichloro-benzyloxy-imino)-methyl]-1,1'-propane-1,3-diyl-bis-pyridinium dibromide (Duo3) inhibit [3H]dimethyl-W84 binding with the same potencies and comparably steep slope factors as found for inhibition of [3H]NMS binding. Tacrine and Duo3 decrease [3H]dimethyl-W84 affinity, not the number of binding sites. It is suggested that these atypical ligands either bind to the two known spatially separated allosteric sites on muscarinic receptors with positive cooperativity or their binding to the common allosteric site modulates receptor-receptor interactions such that homotropic positive cooperativity within a dimer or higher oligomer is generated.

Towards a high-affinity allosteric enhancer at muscarinic M1 receptors.

Loss of forebrain acetylcholine (ACh) is an early neurochemical lesion in Alzheimer's Disease (AD), and muscarinic receptors for ACh are involved in memory and cognition, so a muscarinic agonist could provide 'replacement therapy' in this disease. Muscarinic receptors, which couple to G-proteins, occur throughout the CNS, and in the periphery they mediate the responses of the parasympathetic nervous system, so selectivity is crucial. The five subtypes of muscarinic receptor, M1-M5, have a distinct regional distribution, with M2 and M3 mediating most of the peripheral effects, M2 predominating in hindbrain areas, and M1 predominating in the cortex and hippocampus--the brain regions most associated with memory and cognition, which has lead to a search for a truly M1-selective muscarinic agonist. That search has so far been unsuccessful, but acetylcholinesterase inhibitors such as donepezil (Aricept), which potentiate cholinergic neurotransmission, have a therapeutic role in the management of AD; so the M1 receptor remains a therapeutic target. Our approach is to develop allosteric enhancers--compounds which bind to the receptor at an 'allosteric' site which is distinct from the 'primary' site to which the endogenous ligand binds, and which enhance the affinity (or efficacy) of the endogenous ligand. We have developed radioligand binding assays and analyses for the detection and quantitatitation of allosteric interactions of a test agent with labelled and unlabelled 'primary' ligands, and we report here some results of the initial phase of a chemical synthesis project to develop potent and selective allosteric enhancers at muscarinic M1 receptors.

Substituted pentacyclic carbazolones as novel muscarinic allosteric agents: synthesis and structure-affinity and cooperativity relationships.

Two series of pentacyclic carbazolones, 22 and 23, have been synthesized utilizing a facile intramolecular Dielsminus signAlder reaction and are allosteric modulators at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Their affinities and cooperativities with acetylcholine and the antagonist N-methylscopolamine (NMS) at M(1)minus signM(4) receptors have been analyzed and compared. All of the synthesized compounds are negatively cooperative with acetylcholine. In contrast, the majority of the compounds exhibit positive cooperativity with NMS, particularly at M(2) and M(4) receptors. The subtype selectivity, in terms of affinity, was in general M(2) > M(1) > M(4) > M(3). The largest increases in affinity produced by a single substitution of the core structure were given by the 1-OMe (22b) and 1-Cl (22d) derivatives. The position of the N in the ring did not appear to be important for binding affinity or cooperativity. Two compounds 22y and 23i, both trisubstituted analogues, were the most potent compounds synthesized, with dissociation constants of 30minus sign100 nM for the M(2) NMS-liganded and unliganded receptor, respectively. The results indicate that the allosteric site, like the primary binding site, is capable of high-affinity interactions with molecules of relatively low molecular weight.