Targeting GPC2 on intraocular and CNS metastatic retinoblastomas with local and systemic delivery of CAR T-cells.

PURPOSE: Retinoblastoma is the most common intraocular malignancy in children. Although new chemotherapeutic approaches have improved ocular salvage rates, novel therapies are required for patients with refractory intraocular and metastatic disease. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cells targeting glypican-2 (GPC2) are a potential new therapeutic strategy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: GPC2 expression and its regulation by the E2F1 transcription factor were studied in retinoblastoma patient samples and cellular models. In vitro, we performed functional studies comparing GPC2 CAR T-cells with different co-stimulatory domains (4-1BB and CD28). In vivo, the efficacy of local and systemic administration of GPC2 CAR T-cells were evaluated in intraocular and leptomeningeal human retinoblastoma xenograft models. RESULTS: Retinoblastoma tumors, but not healthy retinal tissues, expressed cell surface GPC2 and this tumor-specific expression was driven by E2F1. GPC2-directed CARs with 4-1BB co-stimulation (GPC2.BBz) were superior to CARs with CD28 stimulatory domains (GPC2.28z), efficiently inducing retinoblastoma cell cytotoxicity and enhancing T-cell proliferation and polyfunctionality. In vivo, GPC2.BBz CARs had enhanced persistence that led to significant tumor regression compared to either control CD19 or GPC2.28z CARs. In intraocular models, GPC2.BBz CAR T-cells efficiently trafficked to tumor-bearing eyes after intravitreal or systemic infusions, significantly prolonging ocular survival. In central nervous system (CNS) retinoblastoma models, intraventricular or systemically administered GPC2.BBz CAR T-cells were activated in retinoblastoma-involved CNS tissues, resulting in robust tumor regression with substantially extended overall mouse survival. CONCLUSIONS: GPC2-directed CAR T-cells are effective against intraocular and CNS metastatic retinoblastomas.

A multi-institutional feasibility study of intra-arterial chemotherapy in children with retinoblastoma. A Children's Oncology Group study (COG ARET12P1).

BACKGROUND: Intra-arterial chemotherapy (IA) as a treatment to salvage the eye with advanced retinoblastoma is increasingly utilized based on successes reported by institutions around the world mainly through retrospective studies. OBJECTIVE: To study the feasibility of delivering melphalan directly into the ophthalmic artery in a multi-institutional prospective study in children with newly diagnosed unilateral group D retinoblastoma. METHODS: The Children's Oncology Group (COG) initiated study ARET12P1 in 2014 and was open to nine institutions. Eligible patients older than six months of age were enrolled. The feasibility of delivering three injections of melphalan into the ophthalmic artery every 28 days was assessed. RESULTS: Nine institutions participated in this trial. Fourteen patients were enrolled, two of whom were unevaluable for feasibility. Four patients experienced a feasibility failure. In two patients, the ophthalmic artery could not be accessed for the second IA injection, in one the artery could not be accessed for the first injection, and one patient experienced grade 4 hypotension during the procedure. CONCLUSION: Delivery of prescribed therapy within the context of this study did not meet the feasibility goals of the study with only a 67% feasibility success rate. These results should caution centers that plan to initiate this treatment and suggest investment in training to achieve technical expertise or referral to centers with expertise.

Outcomes of Intravenous Chemotherapy (Chemoreduction) for Retinoblastoma Based on Patient Age in 964 Eyes of 554 Patients.

PURPOSE: To evaluate retinoblastoma control after intravenous chemotherapy (chemoreduction) by patient age at presentation. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. METHODS: This study included 964 eyes of 554 patients treated with chemoreduction at Ocular Oncology Service at Wills Eye Hospital. Patients received 6 monthly cycles of standard chemoreduction. Additional therapies for tumor control were performed as needed. RESULTS: Of 964 eyes, a comparison by age group (<6 months vs. 6-12 months vs. 13-24 months vs. >24 months) revealed more advanced age group with higher frequency of group E tumor (15% vs. 25% vs. 32% vs. 39%, P < 0.001). By treatment outcomes, complete tumor control was achieved with chemoreduction alone more often in less advanced age group (46% vs. 30% vs. 17% vs. 8%, P < 0.001). Additional treatment after chemoreduction was needed more often in more advanced age group with external beam radiotherapy (EBRT; 9% vs. 16% vs. 20% vs. 15%, P = 0.006) or enucleation (12% vs. 18% vs. 26% vs. 37%, P < 0.001). Over time (1994-1998 vs. 1999-2003 vs. 2004-2008 vs. 2009-2013 vs. 2014-2019), the paradigm for additional required treatment after chemoreduction shifted toward less EBRT (27% vs. 24% vs. 14% vs. 7% vs. 2%, P < 0.001) and more intra-arterial (0% vs. 0% vs. 1% vs. 25% vs. 48%, P < 0.001) and intravitreal (0% vs. 0% vs. 3% vs. 10% vs. 20%, P < 0.001) chemotherapy. CONCLUSIONS: Chemoreduction is a safe and effective treatment method for patients with retinoblastoma, demonstrating the best tumor control in the younger age groups.

Long-term (20-year) real-world outcomes of intravenous chemotherapy (chemoreduction) for retinoblastoma in 964 eyes of 554 patients at a single centre.

BACKGROUND: Intravenous chemotherapy (IVC) remains an important globe salvage therapy for retinoblastoma. METHODS: Evaluation of long-term globe salvage at 5, 10, 15 and 20 years following frontline IVC for retinoblastoma. RESULTS: Of 994 eyes, comparison by International Classification of Retinoblastoma group (A vs B vs C vs D vs E) revealed more advanced group with older mean age at presentation (8 vs 7 vs 10 vs 11 vs 15 months, p<0.001). By clinical features, more advanced group demonstrated greater mean tumour diameter (3.2 vs 6.8 vs 9.4 vs 14.3 vs 16.4, p<0.001) and thickness (2.0 vs 3.7 vs 4.4 vs 7.3 vs 9.3, p<0.001), and greater frequency of vitreous seeds ≥1 quadrant (0% vs 0% vs 44% vs 42% vs 57%, p<0.001) and subretinal seeds (0% vs 0% vs 22% vs 65% vs 54%, p<0.001). By outcomes, less advanced group demonstrated greater tumour control (without need for enucleation or external beam radiotherapy (EBRT)) by year 2 (96% vs 91% vs 91% vs 71% vs 32%, p<0.001), and with minimal change up to 20 years. In order to achieve globe salvage, additional intra-arterial chemotherapy (IAC) or plaque radiotherapy was employed by year 2 (5% vs 26% vs 28% vs 27% vs 19%, p<0.001), with little further need up to 20 years. Pinealoblastoma (2%), metastasis (2%) and death (1%) were infrequent. CONCLUSION: Frontline IVC (plus additional IAC and/or plaque radiotherapy) for retinoblastoma provided complete tumour control for groups A (96%), B (91%), C (91%), D (71%) and E (32%), avoiding enucleation or EBRT and was lasting for up to 20 years.

Management of retinoblastoma in older children (>5 years) using intra-arterial chemotherapy: Comparison of outcomes to prechemotherapy and intravenous chemotherapy eras.

Purpose: Intra-arterial chemotherapy (IAC) has emerged as an effective treatment for retinoblastoma (RB) however, little information exists regarding its use in older patients (>5 years). In the present study, we evaluate the use of IAC (2008-2018) for RB in older patients and compare the outcomes to those in the prechemotherapy (<1994) and intravenous chemotherapy (IVC) (1994-2007) eras. Methods: A retrospective analysis of all patients older than 5 years treated with IAC for RB from 2008-2018. Comparisons were made to 26 active RB cases in older children treated in the prechemotherapy era and to 12 active RB cases treated in the IVC era. Results: There were 13 eyes with RB in 13 older patients treated in the IAC era. The median patient age was 6.8 years. Tumor response was achieved in all 13 eyes at a median interval of 1.1 months from first IAC. Globe salvage was achieved in eight eyes with five eyes requiring enucleation. At 14 months, median follow-up after IAC, there was no metastasis or death. Compared to the prechemotherapy era, those in the IAC era demonstrated significant reduction in need for enucleation (P < 0.001) and EBRT or enucleation (P < 0.001). Compared to the IVC era, there was significant reduction in need for EBRT (P = 0.02) and EBRT or enucleation (P = 0.03) and similar avoidance of metastasis (P > 0.99) and death (P > 0.99). Conclusion: Older patients with RB managed in the IAC era demonstrated reduced need for EBRT or enucleation compared to those managed in the IVC or prechemotherapy eras, with no instance of metastasis or death.

Study of Unilateral Retinoblastoma With and Without Histopathologic High-Risk Features and the Role of Adjuvant Chemotherapy: A Children's Oncology Group Study.

PURPOSE: To prospectively determine the prevalence of high-risk histopathologic features (HRFs) in patients with unilateral retinoblastoma who undergo enucleation and to evaluate the role of chemotherapy in preventing recurrences. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Children newly diagnosed with enucleated unilateral retinoblastoma were enrolled prospectively. After central histopathology review, patients with specific HRFs received chemotherapy; others were observed. Primary end points were event-free survivals (EFS). RESULTS: Of the 331 patients enrolled during 2005 to 2010, 321 eligible patients had central histopathologic review. Discordance between central review and contributing institutions occurred in 23% of patients with HRFs and in 17% of patients without HRFs. Postlaminar optic nerve involvement was present in 53 patients; 42 had massive posterior uveal invasion (≥ 3 mm); 15 had concomitant peripapillary 3 mm or greater choroid and postlaminar optic nerve involvement; and 15 had focal (< 3 mm) choroidal concomitant with lamina or prelamina optic nerve involvement. Two-year EFS for patients with HRFs requiring adjuvant chemotherapy was 0.96 (95% CI, 0.89 to 0.98), and 2-year EFS for patients without HRFs for which observation was indicated was 0.99 (95% CI, 0.96 to 1.0). The 2-year EFS for all patients was 0.98 (95% CI, 0.96 to 0.99). CONCLUSION: Adequate handling and interpretation of histopathology of eyes with retinoblastoma is necessary to assign metastatic risk. Concomitant less than 3 mm choroidal and any prelaminar/laminar optic nerve invasion show no recurrence and may warrant no adjuvant chemotherapy. In contrast, concomitant greater than 3 mm peripapillary choroidal invasion and 1.5 mm or greater of postlaminar optic nerve invasion have the poorest outcomes, supporting the need for a more intensive adjuvant chemotherapy regimen for this subgroup. Strict criteria for adjuvant therapy may improve outcomes of children who undergo enucleation at diagnosis and may avoid unnecessary adjuvant chemotherapy for those who are not at risk for recurrence.

OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY ANGIOGRAPHY FINDINGS OF DEEP CAPILLARY PLEXUS MICROISCHEMIA AFTER INTRAVENOUS CHEMOTHERAPY FOR RETINOBLASTOMA.

PURPOSE: To study changes in the foveal microvascular anatomy using optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) after intravenous chemotherapy (IVC) for retinoblastoma (RB). METHODS: A retrospective comparative case-control series included 10 age-matched normal eyes with no documented ocular pathology (control), 10 fellow eyes of patients with unilateral RB treated with IVC (RB fellow), and 10 eyes with extramacular RB in patients with bilateral RB treated with IVC (RB tumor). All eyes were scanned using enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography and OCTA. Enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography measurements of central macular thickness and subfoveolar choroidal thickness as well as OCTA measurements of foveal avascular zone (FAZ) area in superficial (sFAZ) and deep (dFAZ) plexus and capillary density (CD) in the superficial (sCD) and deep (dCD) plexus were performed. Comparison among the three groups was conducted. RESULTS: Among the three cohorts (control, RB fellow, and RB tumor), there was no difference in mean age at measurement (12, 10, and 12 years) and mean interval between last IVC and OCTA (RB fellow and RB tumor) (9, 10 years). Optical coherence tomography and OCTA revealed no significant difference in central macular thickness (all P ≥ 0.161), choroidal thickness (all P ≥ 0.066), sFAZ (all P ≥ 0.618), dFAZ (all P ≥ 0.610), and sCD (all P ≥ 0.638) comparing controls versus RB fellow, controls versus RB tumor, and RB fellow versus RB tumor. By contrast, mean dCD was significantly greater in controls (52%), compared with both RB fellow (49%, P = 0.026) and RB tumor (48%, P = 0.028) groups, but no difference was found between RB fellow and RB tumor (49% vs. 48%, P = 0.515). LogMAR visual acuity showed no difference among the three groups (all P ≥ 0.150). CONCLUSION: At mean 10-year follow-up, slight reduction in dCD seems to occur after IVC for RB without alterations in central macular thickness, choroidal thickness, FAZ, or sCD and without visual compromise.

Unilateral Retinoblastoma Managed With Intravenous Chemotherapy Versus Intra-Arterial Chemotherapy. Outcomes Based on the International Classification of Retinoblastoma.

PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to compare outcomes after intravenous chemotherapy (IVC) versus intra-arterial chemotherapy (IAC) for unilateral retinoblastoma. DESIGN: A retrospective comparative interventional case series. METHODS: Patients with unilateral retinoblastoma managed with either IVC using vincristine, etoposide, and carboplatin or IAC using melphalan with or without topotecan with a minimum of 1-year follow-up were compared. The primary outcome measure was globe salvage. RESULTS: Of 91 patients with unilateral retinoblastoma, IVC was employed in 42 (46%) cases and IAC in 49 (54%). By comparison (IVC vs IAC), patients in the IAC group had greater mean tumor diameter (14 vs 18 mm, P < 0.001) and thickness (7 vs 10 mm, P = 0.001), greater percentage with active vitreous seeds (29% vs 55%, P = 0.01), and greater total retinal detachment (10% vs 43%, P < 0.001). There were no cases of group A in either treatment arm. Globe salvage was not significantly different in groups B, C, or E, but there was significantly improved globe salvage with IAC for group D (48% vs 91%, P = 0.004). Control was significantly better with IAC for solid tumor (62% vs 92%, P = 0.002), subretinal seeds (31% vs 86%, P = 0.006), and vitreous seeds (25% vs 74%, P = 0.006). There were no patients with pinealoblastoma, second cancer, metastasis, or death in either group. CONCLUSIONS: For unilateral retinoblastoma, IAC provided significantly superior globe salvage compared with IVC for group D eyes. In addition, IAC provided significantly superior control for solid tumor, subretinal seeds, and vitreous seeds.

Diffuse Anterior Retinoblastoma with Globe Salvage and Visual Preservation in 3 Consecutive Cases.

PURPOSE: Diffuse anterior retinoblastoma is an exquisitely rare variant of retinoblastoma in which the tumor resides in the anterior segment of the eye, without apparent retinal involvement. Previously published cases have been managed with enucleation. We describe globe salvage and visual preservation in 3 consecutive cases using chemotherapy and radiotherapy. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. PARTICIPANTS: Three children with diffuse anterior retinoblastoma. METHODS: Plaque radiotherapy plus intravenous chemotherapy. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Globe and vision preservation. RESULTS: The mean patient age at presentation elsewhere was 5.7 years (median, 7; range, 3-7 years). There were 2 white female patients and 1 African American male patient. The initial observation by parents/caregiver was reduced vision (n = 1), red eye (n = 1), or cloudy eye (n = 1), and the initial finding by physician was iris tumor (n = 2) or hyphema (n = 1). Referring diagnosis was iris melanoma (n = 1), infectious endotheliitis (n = 1), and possible tumor (nonspecified) (n = 1). At our evaluation, visual acuity was 20/50 to 20/60 (n = 2) and fix no follow (n = 1). In all cases, the opposite eye was normal. Mean intraocular pressure was 20 mm Hg (median, 16; range, 15-30 mmHg). Our examination revealed solid iris tumor (n = 3), ciliary body involvement (n = 2), and anterior chamber seeding (n = 3). In no case was there choroidal or retinal tumor, vitreous seed or subretinal seed, or extrascleral extension. Clear corneal fine-needle aspiration biopsy confirmed the diagnosis as retinoblastoma in each case. Treatment included plaque radiotherapy (n = 3) plus additional systemic chemotherapy (n = 2). At mean follow-up of 35 months (median, 34; range, 20-51 months), there has been no recurrence, extrascleral extension, enucleation, metastasis, or death. In all 3 cases, cataract surgery was necessary at a mean interval of 16 months after complete and stable regression of retinoblastoma. CONCLUSIONS: The rare diffuse anterior form of retinoblastoma can be managed with globe-salvaging alternatives and with visual preservation in selected cases.

Lack of vincristine infiltrates in patients with retinoblastoma receiving chemotherapy by peripheral intravenous lines.

The delivery route of chemotherapy for intraocular retinoblastoma has become controversial. One objection to systemic delivery is the need for central venous access. We cross-referenced a hospital vascular access database with our tumor registry to determine the incidence of chemotherapy infiltrates. Sixty-five patients received 270 cycles of chemotherapy via peripheral intravenous access. Vincristine infiltration was 0% (95% confidence interval [CI] 0-0.16%) while that of non-vesicant chemotherapy was 0.7% (95%CI 0.1-2.6%). Giving chemotherapy via peripheral access to patients with retinoblastoma is safe. It can decrease therapy costs and prevent central line associated blood stream infections.

Targeted retinoblastoma management: when to use intravenous, intra-arterial, periocular, and intravitreal chemotherapy.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The management of retinoblastoma is complex and involves strategically chosen methods of enucleation, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, laser photocoagulation, thermotherapy, and cryotherapy. Chemotherapy has become the most common eye-sparing modality. There are four routes of delivery of chemotherapy for retinoblastoma, including intravenous, intra-arterial, periocular, and intravitreal techniques. The purpose of this review is to discuss the current rationale for each method and the anticipated outcomes. RECENT FINDINGS: The diagnosis of retinoblastoma should be clinically established prior to embarking on a chemotherapy protocol. There are over 25 conditions that can closely simulate retinoblastoma in a young child. In addition, enucleation is an acceptable method for management, particularly with advanced retinoblastoma. Intravenous chemotherapy is generally used for germline mutation (bilateral, familial) retinoblastoma with excellent tumor control for groups A, B, and C and intermediate control for group D eyes. Intra-arterial chemotherapy is used as primary therapy in selected cases for nongermline mutation (unilateral) retinoblastoma with excellent control, and also used as secondary therapy for recurrent solid retinoblastoma, subretinal seeds, and vitreous seeds. Periocular chemotherapy is employed to boost local chemotherapy dose in advanced bilateral groups D and E eyes or for localized recurrences. Intravitreal chemotherapy is used for recurrent vitreous seeds from retinoblastoma. Patients at high risk for metastases should receive intravenous chemotherapy. SUMMARY: Chemotherapy is effective for retinoblastoma and the targeted treatment route depends on the clinical features and anticipated outcomes.

Management of advanced retinoblastoma with intravenous chemotherapy then intra-arterial chemotherapy as alternative to enucleation.

PURPOSE: To determine the efficacy of primary intravenous chemotherapy (IVC) plus secondary intraarterial chemotherapy (IAC) for patients with advanced retinoblastoma. METHODS: Retrospective, nonrandomized interventional case series of 14 patients with retinoblastoma managed with primary systemic IVC (vincristine, etoposide, and carboplatin for 6 cycles) followed by secondary IAC (melphalan for 1-6 cycles). RESULTS: Fourteen patients with advanced retinoblastoma classified by the International Classification of Retinoblastoma as Group D (n = 6, 43%) or Group E (n = 8, 57%) were treated with IVC as primary treatment and subsequent secondary IAC as rescue or consolidation therapy. The IAC was given for recurrent retinoblastoma and/or subretinal/vitreous seeds in 13 eyes (93%) and for persistent viable retinoblastoma in 1 eye (7%). Enucleation was the alternative option. The mean interval between IVC completion and IAC start was 40 weeks (median, 11 weeks; range, 2-170 weeks) and the mean number of IAC cycles was 3 (median, 3; range, 1-6). After primary IVC plus secondary IAC, globe salvage was achieved in 8 patients (57%) at mean 2-year follow-up. There was no evidence of retinoblastoma metastasis or death and no sign of second cancer or life-threatening complication. CONCLUSION: For advanced retinoblastoma (Groups D and E) in which enucleation is the alternative option, primary systemic IVC followed by secondary focal IAC provides globe salvage in 57% of the eyes and with no metastatic event.

Incidence of pineal gland cyst and pineoblastoma in children with retinoblastoma during the chemoreduction era.

PURPOSE: To report on the frequency of cysts and tumors of the pineal gland in patients with retinoblastoma. DESIGN: Observational retrospective case control study. SETTING: Institutional. study population: Four hundred eight patients treated for retinoblastoma from January 2000 to January 2012 at Wills Eye Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. OBSERVATION PROCEDURE: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features of the pineal gland were evaluated in all patients with retinoblastoma. Characteristics of patients with pineal cysts and pineoblastoma were reviewed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Comparison of frequency of pineal gland cyst and pineoblastoma in children managed with systemic chemoreduction vs other methods. RESULTS: Of 408 patients, treatment included systemic chemoreduction in 252 (62%) and nonchemoreduction methods in 156 (38%). Overall, 34 patients (8%) manifested pineal gland cyst and 4 (1%) showed pineoblastoma. Of all 408 patients, comparison (chemoreduction vs nonchemoreduction) revealed pineal cyst (20/252 vs 14/156, P = .7) and pineoblastoma (1/252 vs 3/156, P = .1). The pineal cyst (n = 34) (mean diameter 4 mm) was asymptomatic (n = 34), followed conservatively (n = 34), and with minimal enlargement (n = 2, 9%) but without progression to pineoblastoma. The cyst was found in 22 germline and 12 nongermline patients (P = .15). Among the 4 patients with pineoblastoma, all had germline mutation and 2 had family history of retinoblastoma. Among all patients with family history of retinoblastoma (n = 45), 2 (4%) developed pineoblastoma. The pineoblastoma was asymptomatic in 2 patients and symptomatic with vomiting and headache in 2 patients. The mean interval from date of retinoblastoma detection to pineal cyst was 2 months (median 2, range 0-8 months) and to pineoblastoma was 27 months (median 28, range 7-46 months). Management included aggressive chemotherapy and radiotherapy, with 2 survivors. CONCLUSIONS: Pineal gland cyst was incidentally detected in 8% of retinoblastoma patients, causing no symptoms, and without progression to pineoblastoma. Pineoblastoma was detected in 1% of patients and fewer patients who received systemic chemotherapy developed pineoblastoma, possibly indicating a systemic protective effect.

Second malignant neoplasms following chemoreduction with carboplatin, etoposide, and vincristine in 245 patients with intraocular retinoblastoma.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate the occurrence of second malignant neoplasms (SMN) following chemoreduction (CRD) with carboplatin, vincristine, and etoposide (CEV) as frontline therapy in patients with retinoblastoma (RB). PRODECURE: We conducted a two-institution retrospective chart review of 245 patients with intraocular RB treated with six cycles of vincristine, carboplatin, and etoposide for treatment of intraocular retinoblastoma. Cumulative incidence of SMN was calculated with adjustment for the competing risk of death. RESULTS: There were 187 patients with germline retinoblastoma and 58 with non-germline disease. External beam radiotherapy was subsequently utilized in 46 (24%) of germline cases and six (10%) of non-germline cases. Mean follow-up of germline and non-germline patients was 80 and 70 months, respectively. Seven subsequent cancers were found in six patients for an overall incidence of 3% at a mean of 11 years. For germline cases, following CEV alone (n = 156), SMN were found in 4% following the RB diagnosis. We found no SMN in patients with non-germline RB. One patient developed pineoblastoma. SMN included osteosarcoma (n = 3), rhabdomyosarcoma (n = 1), orbital and conjunctival melanoma (n = 1), low-grade glioma (n = 1), and acute promyeloctic leukemia (n = 1). Five of the six patients with a second malignancy survive at mean of 46 months (range 15-71 months). CONCLUSIONS: At a mean of 11 years, 4% of children with germline RB treated with CEV as frontline therapy developed SMN's. No SMN was found in non-germline patients. Concerns regarding CEV-induced second cancers should not deter clinicians from using life and vision preserving therapy in patients with retinoblastoma.