Topical Microemulsions: Skin Irritation Potential and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Herbal Substances.

Microemulsions (MEs) have gained prominence as effective drug delivery systems owing to their optical transparency, low viscosity, and thermodynamic stability. MEs, when stabilized with surfactants and/or co-surfactants, exhibit enhanced drug solubilization, prolonged shelf life, and simple preparation methods. This review examines the various types of MEs, explores different preparation techniques, and investigates characterization approaches. Plant extracts and bioactive compounds are well established for their utilization as active ingredients in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Being derived from natural sources, they serve as preferable alternatives to synthetic chemicals. Furthermore, they have demonstrated a wide range of therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities. However, the topical application of plant extracts and bioactive compounds has certain limitations, such as low skin absorption and stability. To overcome these challenges, the utilization of MEs enables enhanced skin absorption, thereby making them a valuable mode of administration. However, considering the significant surfactant content in MEs, this review evaluates the potential skin irritation caused by MEs containing herbal substances. Additionally, the review explores the topical application of MEs specifically for herbal substances, with an emphasis on their anti-inflammatory properties.

Development of Miconazole-Loaded Microemulsions for Enhanced Topical Delivery and Non-Destructive Analysis by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

The antifungal drug miconazole nitrate has a low solubility in water, leading to reduced therapeutic efficacy. To address this limitation, miconazole-loaded microemulsions were developed and assessed for topical skin delivery, prepared through spontaneous emulsification with oleic acid and water. The surfactant phase included a mixture of polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate (PSM) and various cosurfactants (ethanol, 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy) ethanol, or 2-propanol). The optimal miconazole-loaded microemulsion containing PSM and ethanol at a ratio of 1:1 showed a mean cumulative drug permeation of 87.6 ± 5.8 µg/cm2 across pig skin. The formulation exhibited higher cumulative permeation, permeation flux, and drug deposition than conventional cream and significantly increased the in vitro inhibition of Candida albicans compared with cream (p < 0.05). Over the course of a 3-month study conducted at a temperature of 30 ± 2 °C, the microemulsion exhibited favorable physicochemical stability. This outcome signifies its potential suitability as a carrier for effectively administering miconazole through topical administration. Additionally, a non-destructive technique employing near-infrared spectroscopy coupled with a partial least-squares regression (PLSR) model was developed to quantitatively analyze microemulsions containing miconazole nitrate. This approach eliminates the need for sample preparation. The optimal PLSR model was derived by utilizing orthogonal signal correction pretreated data with one latent factor. This model exhibited a remarkable R2 value of 0.9919 and a root mean square error of calibration of 0.0488. Consequently, this methodology holds potential for effectively monitoring the quantity of miconazole nitrate in various formulations, including both conventional and innovative ones.

Optimization of Magnetic and Paper-Based Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Selective Extraction of Charantin in Momordica charantia.

Charantin is a mixture of ß-sitosterol and stigmastadienol glucosides, which effectively lowers high blood glucose. Novel molecularly imprinted polymers coated magnetic nanoparticles (Fe3O4@MIPs) and filter paper (paper@MIPs) were synthesized by sol-gel polymerization to selectively extract charantin. ß-sitosterol glucoside was selected as a template for imprinting a specific recognition owing to its larger molecular surface area than that of 5,25-stigmastadienol glucoside. Factorial designs were used to examine the effects of the types of porogenic solvents and cross-linkers on the extraction efficiency and imprinting factor before investigating other factors (for example, amounts of template and coated MIPs, and types of substrates for MIP immobilization). Compared to traditional liquid-liquid extraction, the optimal Fe3O4@MIP-based dispersive micro-solid phase extraction and paper@MIP extraction provided excellent extraction efficiency (87.5 ± 2.1% and 85.0 ± 2.9%, respectively) and selectivity. Charantin was well separated, and a new unidentified sterol glucoside was observed using the developed high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection (Rs ≥ 2.0, n > 16,400). The developed methods were successfully utilized to extract and quantify charantin from M. charantia fruit powder and herbal products. Moreover, these methods are rapid (<10 min), inexpensive, simple, reproducible, and environmentally friendly.

Response Surface Methodology for Optimization of Hydrogel-Forming Microneedles as Rapid and Efficient Transdermal Microsampling Tools.

Microneedles (MNs) have shown a great potential for the microsampling of dermal interstitial fluid (ISF) in a minimally invasive manner for point-of-care testing (POCT). The swelling properties of hydrogel-forming microneedles (MNs) allow for passive extraction of ISF. Surface response approaches, including Box-Behnken design (BBD), central composite design (CCD), and optimal discrete design, were employed for the optimization of hydrogel film by studying the effects of independent variables (i.e., the amount of hyaluronic acid, GantrezTM S-97, and pectin) on the swelling property. The optimal discrete model was selected to predict the appropriate variables, due to the good fit of the experimental data and the model validity. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the model demonstrated p-value < 0.0001, R2 = 0.9923, adjusted R2 = 0.9894, and predicted R2 = 0.9831. Finally, the predicted film formulation containing 2.75% w/w hyaluronic acid, 1.321% w/w GantrezTM S-97, and 1.246% w/w pectin was used for further fabrication of MNs (525.4 ± 3.8 µm height and 157.4 ± 2.0 µm base width), which possessed 1508.2 ± 66.2% swelling, with 124.6 ± 7.4 µL of collection volume, and could withstand thumb pressure. Moreover, almost 50% of MNs achieved a skin insertion depth of approx. 400 µm, with 71.8 ± 3.2% to 78.3 ± 2.6% recoveries. The developed MNs show a promising prospect in microsample collection, which would be beneficial for POCT.

Bioisosteric Design Identifies Inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA Gyrase ATPase Activity.

Mutations in DNA gyrase confer resistance to fluoroquinolones, second-line antibiotics for Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. Identification of new agents that inhibit M. tuberculosis DNA gyrase ATPase activity is one strategy to overcome this. Here, bioisosteric designs using known inhibitors as templates were employed to define novel inhibitors of M. tuberculosis DNA gyrase ATPase activity. This yielded the modified compound R3-13 with improved drug-likeness compared to the template inhibitor that acted as a promising ATPase inhibitor against M. tuberculosis DNA gyrase. Utilization of compound R3-13 as a virtual screening template, supported by subsequent biological assays, identified seven further M. tuberculosis DNA gyrase ATPase inhibitors with IC50 values in the range of 0.42-3.59 µM. The most active compound 1 showed an IC50 value of 0.42 µM, 3-fold better than the comparator ATPase inhibitor novobiocin (1.27 µM). Compound 1 showed noncytotoxicity to Caco-2 cells at concentrations up to 76-fold higher than its IC50 value. Molecular dynamics simulations followed by decomposition energy calculations identified that compound 1 occupies the binding pocket utilized by the adenosine group of the ATP analogue AMPPNP in the M. tuberculosis DNA gyrase GyrB subunit. The most prominent contribution to the binding of compound 1 to M. tuberculosis GyrB subunit is made by residue Asp79, which forms two hydrogen bonds with the OH group of this compound and also participates in the binding of AMPPNP. Compound 1 represents a potential new scaffold for further exploration and optimization as a M. tuberculosis DNA gyrase ATPase inhibitor and candidate anti-tuberculosis agent.

Extemporaneous Preparation of 20 mg/mL Ganciclovir in Artificial Tears in Comparison with Sterile Water for Ophthalmic Administration: Formulation and Stability Study.

Ganciclovir is available as a lyophilized powder for reconstitution and is normally used to treat ophthalmic viral infections. The use of ganciclovir in artificial tears containing hydrocolloid polymers may prove beneficial to patients during drug application, by prolonging contact time and providing a moistening effect. Therefore, this study aimed to extemporaneously prepare 20 mg/mL ganciclovir in artificial tears and compare its stability with that of a similar concentration of ganciclovir in sterile water (SWI) for ophthalmic administration. First, a compatibility study of the drug with commercial artificial tears found that it was compatible with artificial tears containing sodium hyaluronate (HYA). Subsequently, ganciclovir/0.1% HYA (HYA0.1) and ganciclovir/SWI eyedrops (EDs) in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) eyedrop bottles packed in light-shielded zipper bags were evaluated for their stability at 5 ± 3 °C and 30 ± 2 °C. The results revealed that ganciclovir/SWI ED had good physicochemical and microbiological stability when stored at 5 ± 3 °C for 12 weeks and at 30 ± 2 °C for 8 weeks. Meanwhile, ganciclovir/HYA0.1 ED was stable for 8 weeks when kept at 5 ± 3 °C and at 30 ± 2 °C, but ganciclovir in 0.3% HYA ED could be stored at 5 ± 3 °C for 8 weeks. Nevertheless, particulate matter may need to be investigated using a suitable method to ensure the absence of invisible particles in these preparations. Of these results, ganciclovir/HYA artificial tears and SWI EDs show potential for use as home medications for the treatment of ophthalmic viral infections.

Antihyperglycemic effects of Lysiphyllum strychnifolium leaf extract in vitro and in vivo.

CONTEXT: Lysiphyllum strychnifolium (Craib) A. Schmitz (LS) (Fabaceae) has traditionally been used to treat diabetes mellitus. OBJECTIVE: This study demonstrates the antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of aqueous extract of LS leaves in vivo and in vitro. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The effects of aqueous LS leaf extract on glucose uptake, sodium-dependent glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) mRNA expression in Caco-2 cells, α-glucosidase, and lipid peroxidation were evaluated in vitro. The antidiabetic effects were evaluated using an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and a 28-day consecutive administration to streptozotocin (STZ)-nicotinamide (NA)-induced type 2 diabetic mice. RESULTS: The extract significantly inhibited glucose uptake (IC50: 236.2 ± 36.05 µg/mL) and downregulated SGLT1 and GLUT2 mRNA expression by approximately 90% in Caco-2 cells. Furthermore, it non-competitively inhibited α-glucosidase in a concentration-dependent manner with the IC50 and Ki of 6.52 ± 0.42 and 1.32 µg/mL, respectively. The extract at 1000 mg/kg significantly reduced fasting blood glucose levels in both the OGTT and 28-day consecutive administration models as compared with untreated STZ-NA-induced diabetic mice (p < 0.05). Significant improvements of serum insulin, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and GLUT4 levels were observed. Furthermore, the extract markedly decreased oxidative stress markers by 37-53% reduction of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) in muscle and malondialdehyde (MDA) in muscle and pancreas, which correlated with the reduction of MDA production in vitro (IC50: 24.80 ± 7.24 µg/mL). CONCLUSION: The LS extract has potent antihyperglycemic activity to be used as alternative medicine to treat diabetes mellitus.

Influence of chitosan and chitosan oligosaccharide on dual antibiotic-loaded bone cement: In vitro evaluations.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of incorporating chitosan (Ch) and chitosan oligosaccharides (ChO) into the commercially premixed antibiotic-loaded bone cement (ALBC). We compare antibiotic release profiles, antibacterial activity, and mechanical properties among different ALBC formulations. The hypothesis was that increasing the amount of Ch and ChO in the cement mixture would increase the antibiotics released and bacterial control. ALBC mixed with Ch or ChO may create a greater effect due to its superior dissolving property. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The bone cement samples used in this project were made from Copal® G+V composed of vancomycin and gentamicin. To prepare the Ch and the ChO mixed bone cement samples, different amounts of Ch and ChO were added to the polymethylmethacrylate matrix with three concentrations (1%, 5%, and 10%). Drug elution assay, antimicrobial assay, in vitro cytotoxicity, and mechanical properties were conducted. RESULTS: Bone cement samples made from Copal® G+V alone or combined with Ch or ChO can release vancomycin and gentamicin into the phosphate-buffered saline. Mixing ChO into the bone cements can increase the amount of drug released more than Ch. ChO 10% gave the highest amount of antibiotics released. All samples showed good antibacterial properties with good biocompatibility in vitro. The microhardness values of the Ch and ChO groups increased significantly compared to the control group. In all groups tested, the microhardness of bone cements was reduced after the drug eluted out. However, this reduction of the Ch and ChO groups was in line with the control. INTERPRETATION: Various attempts have been made to improve the ALBC efficacy. In our study, the best bone cement formulation was bone cement mixed with ChO (10%), which had the highest drug release profiles, was biocompatible, and contained antibacterial properties with acceptable mechanical properties. This phenomenon could result from the superior water solubility of the ChO. When ChO leaves the bone cement specimens, it generates pores that could act as a path that exposes the bone cement matrix to the surrounding medium, increasing antibiotic elution. From all above, ChO is a promising substance that could be added to ALBC in order to increase the drug elution rate. However, more in vitro and in vivo experiments are needed before being used in the clinic.

Virtual Screening Identifies Novel and Potent Inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis PknB with Antibacterial Activity.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis protein kinase B (PknB) is essential to mycobacterial growth and has received considerable attention as an attractive target for novel anti-tuberculosis drug development. Here, virtual screening, validated by biological assays, was applied to select candidate inhibitors of M. tuberculosis PknB from the Specs compound library (www.specs.net). Fifteen compounds were identified as hits and selected for in vitro biological assays, of which three indoles (2, AE-848/42799159; 4, AH-262/34335013; 10, AP-124/40904362) inhibited growth of M. tuberculosis H37Rv with minimal inhibitory concentrations of 6.2, 12.5, and 6.2 µg/mL, respectively. Two compounds, 2 and 10, inhibited M. tuberculosis PknB activity in vitro, with IC50 values of 14.4 and 12.1 µM, respectively, suggesting this to be the likely basis of their anti-tubercular activity. In contrast, compound 4 displayed anti-tuberculosis activity against M. tuberculosis H37Rv but showed no inhibition of PknB activity (IC50 > 128 µM). We hypothesize that hydrolysis of its ethyl ester to a carboxylate moiety generates an active species that inhibits other M. tuberculosis enzymes. Molecular dynamics simulations of modeled complexes of compounds 2, 4, and 10 bound to M. tuberculosis PknB indicated that compound 4 has a lower affinity for M. tuberculosis PknB than compounds 2 and 10, as evidenced by higher calculated binding free energies, consistent with experiment. Compounds 2 and 10 therefore represent candidate inhibitors of M. tuberculosis PknB that provide attractive starting templates for optimization as anti-tubercular agents.

Phyllanthus emblica Extract-loaded Transfersomes for Hair Follicle Targeting: Phytoconstituents, Characterization, and Hair Growth Promotion.

Phyllanthus emblica Linn. (PE) has been used to promote hair growth for decades. In this study, dried PE fruit powder was extracted, tested for biological activities, and loaded into transfersomes for hair follicle targeting. Before lyophilization, PE fruit powder was extracted using 2 solvent systems, water and 30% ethanol. The PE 30% ethanolic extract had higher antioxidant activity and total phenolic content than the PE aqueous extract. However, the cytotoxicity of the PE 30% ethanolic extract was higher than that of PE aqueous extract. As a result, the PE aqueous extract was analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography and found that the major component of the PE aqueous extract was gallic acid. Afterward, the PE aqueous extract was tested for its potential to activate the expression of genes involved in hair growth promotion in human keratinocytes. At a non-toxic concentration (10 µg/mL), this extract promoted various growth factors comparable to 1% minoxidil. PE-loaded transfersomes were prepared to deliver the PE aqueous extract to the hair follicle. The particle size and polydispersity index of PE-loaded transfersomes were 228 nm and 0.25, respectively. After 3 months of storage, the particle size at 4°C and 30°C was 218 nm and 241 nm, respectively, which was comparable to its initial size. However, at 40°C, the particle size dramatically increased (315 nm). The fluorescent agent, rhodamine B, was used to evaluate the potential of transfersomes to target hair follicles. Rhodamine B transfersomes had better penetration and accumulation in hair follicles than rhodamine B solution. To conclude, the PE aqueous extract, mainly composed of gallic acid, can activate hair growth gene expression. The extract can be loaded into hair follicles targeting transfersomes. Thus, PE-loaded transfersomes are a promising delivery system for hair follicle targeting to promote hair growth.

The Effects of Andrographolide on the Enhancement of Chondrogenesis and Osteogenesis in Human Suprapatellar Fat Pad Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

Andrographolide is a labdane diterpenoid herb, which is isolated from the leaves of Andrographis paniculata, and widely used for its potential medical properties. However, there are no reports on the effects of andrographolide on the human suprapatellar fat pad of osteoarthritis patients. In the present study, our goal was to evaluate the innovative effects of andrographolide on viability and Tri-lineage differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells from suprapatellar fat pad tissues. The results revealed that andrographolide had no cytotoxic effects when the concentration was less than 12.5 µM. Interestingly, andrographolide had significantly enhanced, dose dependent, osteogenesis and chondrogenesis as evidenced by a significantly intensified stain for Alizarin Red S, Toluidine Blue and Alcian Blue. Moreover, andrographolide can upregulate the expression of genes related to osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation, including Runx2, OPN, Sox9, and Aggrecan in mesenchymal stem cells from human suprapatellar fat pad tissues. In contrast, andrographolide suppressed adipogenic differentiation as evidenced by significantly diminished Oil Red O staining and expression levels for adipogenic-specific genes for PPAR-γ2 and LPL. These findings confirm that andrographolide can specifically enhance osteogenesis and chondrogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells from human suprapatellar fat pad tissues. It has potential as a therapeutic agent derived from natural sources for regenerative medicine.

Paper-based sol-gel thin films immobilized cytochrome P450 for enzyme activity measurement.

Cytochrome P450 (CYP450), and in particular CYP3A4, is the most abundantly expressed CYP450 isozyme implicated in many drug-drug and medicinal plant-drug interactions. Therefore, incorporation of CYP3A4 enzyme screening at an early stage of drug discovery is preferable in order to avoid enzymatic interactions. Here we present for the first time a paper-based CYP3A4 immobilized sol-gel-derived a platform using resorufin benzyl ether as a fluorogenic enzyme substrate used to investigate enzyme activity. The fluorescence intensity of the product can be simply quantified by using a handheld digital microscope and an image analysis software. The limit of quantitation was 0.35 µM with good precision (RSDs < 4.1%). Furthermore, the assay of CYP3A4 activity on the developed paper-based device provided comparable results with those obtained from conventional well-plates (p > 0.05), while offering simplicity and lower cost. Kinetic parameters of the immobilized CYP3A4 in sol-gel coated paper were calculated from the Lineweaver-Burk plot, including Michaelis constant (Km) and maximum velocity (Vmax), which were 2.71 ±â€¯0.35 µM and 0.43 ±â€¯0.05 µM/min, respectively. Moreover, a functional test of these devices was conducted by assessments of known CYP3A4 inhibitors (i.e. ketoconazole, itraconazole) and inducers (i.e. phenytoin, carbamazepine). To further demonstrate the broad range of uses, the devices were utilized to assay plant extracts i.e. Areca catechu seeds, Camellia sinensis leaves, Eclipta prostrata aerial part, providing results in good agreement with previous studies. Furthermore, the sol-gel immobilized enzyme stored at 4 °C can increase storage stability, offering the activity of 86.3 ±â€¯0.4% after 3-weeks storage, equivalent to the activity of the free enzyme solution after 1-week storage. The developed paper-based devices offer versatility, portability and low-cost.

Camellia sinensis L. Extract and Its Potential Beneficial Effects in Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, Anti-Hepatotoxic, and Anti-Tyrosinase Activities.

The aims of this study were to investigate the potential benefits of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hepatotoxic, and anti-tyrosinase activities of a methanolic extract of fresh tea leaves (FTE) (Camellia sinensis L.). The antioxidant capacity was investigated using three different methods at different temperatures. The anti-inflammatory activity was studied in vitro by the inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase assay. The anti-hepatotoxic effect was investigated in CCl4-induced liver injury in rats. The anti-tyrosinase activities of the FTE and its principal phenolic compounds were investigated in l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA) oxidation by a mushroom tyrosinase. A molecular docking study was conducted to determine how the FTE's principal catechins interact with the tyrosinase. The FTE exhibited the best shelf life at low temperatures and demonstrated concentration-dependent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hepatotoxic, and anti-tyrosinase effects compared to positive references. Treatment of rats with the FTE at 2000 mg/kg/day for 28 consecutive days reversed CCl4-induced oxidative damage in hepatic tissues by lowering the levels of alanine aminotransferase by 69% and malondialdehyde by 90%. Our findings suggest that the FTE has the capacity to scavenge free radicals and can protect against oxidative stress induced by CCl4 intoxication. The docking results were consistent with our in vitro data, indicating the anti-tyrosinase potency of the principal catechins.

In vitro glucuronidation of methyl gallate and pentagalloyl glucopyranose by liver microsomes.

Methyl gallate (MG) and pentagalloyl glucopyranose (PGG) are bioactive phenolic compounds that possess various pharmacological activities. However, the knowledge of hepatic metabolism of MG and PGG is limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate the in vitro glucuronidation of MG and PGG using liver microsomes from human (HLMs) and rats (Sprague-Dawley, SDRLMs; Wistar, WRLMs; and Gunn, GRLMs), and recombinant human uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) 1A1 and 1A9. The results demonstrated that liver microsomes catalyzed two mono-glucuronided MG (M1 and M2) formations but that UGT1A1 and 1A9 catalyzed only M1 formation. For PGG, a mono-glucuronided metabolite was mediated by liver microsomes or UGT1A9. However, a PGG glucuronide was absent in the UGT1A1 system. Additionally, all metabolites showed susceptibility to ß-glucuronidases. Furthermore, the glucuronidation activities of PGG were lower than those of MG. The kinetic parameters of MG glucuronidation demonstrated that the SDRLMs and GRLMs were more similar to the HLMs than the WRLMs for the formations of M1 and M2, respectively and that the SDRLMs and HLMs preferentially contributed to M1, whereas the WRLMs and GRLMs showed the favored formation of M2. In conclusion, MG and PGG were subjectively glucuronided by liver microsomes to demonstrate species- and strain-dependent metabolism.

Factors Influencing Oral Bioavailability of Thai Mango Seed Kernel Extract and Its Key Phenolic Principles.

Mango seed kernel extract (MSKE) and its key components (gallic acid, GA; methyl gallate, MG; and pentagalloyl glucopyranose, PGG) have generated interest because of their pharmacological activities. To develop the potential use of the key components in MSKE as natural therapeutic agents, their pharmacokinetic data are necessary. Therefore, this study was performed to evaluate the factors affecting their oral bioavailability as pure compounds and as components in MSKE. The in vitro chemical stability, biological stability, and absorption were evaluated in Hanks' Balanced Salt Solution, Caco-2 cell and rat fecal lysates, and the Caco-2 cell model, respectively. The in vivo oral pharmacokinetic behavior was elucidated in Sprague-Dawley rats. The key components were unstable under alkaline conditions and in Caco-2 cell lysates or rat fecal lysates. The absorptive permeability coefficient followed the order MG > GA > PGG. The in vivo results exhibited similar pharmacokinetic trends to the in vitro studies. Additionally, the co-components in MSKE may affect the pharmacokinetic behaviors of the key components in MSKE. In conclusion, chemical degradation under alkaline conditions, biological degradation by intestinal cell and colonic microflora enzymes, and low absorptive permeability could be important factors underlying the oral bioavailability of these polyphenols.

Microemulsion system for topical delivery of thai mango seed kernel extract: development, physicochemical characterisation and ex vivo skin permeation studies.

A microemulsion system containing Thai mango seed kernel extract (MSKE, cultivar "Fahlun") was developed and characterised for the purpose of topical skin delivery. The MSKE-loaded microemulsions were prepared by using the spontaneous emulsification method. Isopropyl myristate (IPM) was selected as the oil phase. A polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate and sorbitan monododecanoate (1:1, w/w) system was used as the surfactant phase; an aqueous mixture of different cosurfactants (absolute ethanol, 96.3% v/v ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol or 1,2-propanediol) at a weight ratio of 1:1 was used as the aqueous phase. Among the cosurfactants studied, the 1-propanol aqueous mixture had the largest microemulsion region (48.93%) in the pseudo-ternary phase diagram. Microemulsions containing 1% MSKE demonstrated good physicochemical stability during a six-month study period at 25 ± 2 °C/60% ± 5% RH. The ex vivo skin permeation study demonstrated that the microemulsions exhibited a potent skin enhancement effect allowing MSKE to penetrate skin layers up to 60-fold higher compared with the control. Neither skin irritation nor skin corrosion was observed in ex vivo studies. The present study revealed that IPM-based microemulsion systems may be promising carriers to enhance skin penetration and delivering MSKE for topical treatment.

Precipitation-lyophilization-homogenization (PLH) for preparation of clarithromycin nanocrystals: influencing factors on physicochemical properties and stability.

Nanocrystals is one of effective technologies used to improve solubility and dissolution behavior of poorly soluble drugs. Clarithromycin is classified in BCS class II having low bioavailability due to very low dissolution behavior. The main purpose of this study was to investigate an efficiency of clarithromycin nanocrystals preparation by precipitation-lyophilization-homogenization (PLH) combination method in comparison with high pressure homogenization (HPH) method. The factors influencing particle size reduction and physical stability were assessed. The results showed that the PLH technique provided an effective and rapid reduction of particle size of nanocrystals to 460 ± 10 nm with homogeneity size distribution after only the fifth cycle of homogenization, whereas the same size was attained after 30 cycles by the HPH method. The smallest nanocrystals were achieved by using the combination of poloxamer 407 (2%, w/v) and SLS (0.1%, w/v) as stabilizers. This combination could prevent the particle aggregation over 3-month storage at 4 °C. The results from SEM showed that the clarithromycin nanocrystals were in cubic-shaped similar to its initial particle morphology. The DSC thermogram and X-ray diffraction pattern of nanocrystals were not different from the original drug except for intensity of peaks which indicated the presenting of nanocrystals in the crystalline state and/or partial amorphous form. In addition, the dissolution of the clarithromycin nanocrystals was dramatically increased as compared to the coarse clarithromycin.

Anti-necrosis potential of polyphenols against snake venoms.

Polyphenols from the extracts of Areca catechu L. and Quercus infectoria Oliv. inhibited phospholipase A(2), proteases, hyaluronidase and L-amino acid oxidase of Naja naja kaouthia Lesson (NK) and Calloselasma rhodostoma Kuhl (CR) venoms by in vitro tests. Both extracts inhibited the hemorrhagic activity of CR venom and the dermonecrotic activity of NK venom by in vivo tests. The inhibitory activity of plant polyphenols against local tissue necrosis induced by snake venoms may be caused by inhibition of inflammatory reactions, hemorrhage, and necrosis. The result implies the therapeutic potential of plant polyphenols against necrosis in snakebite victims.

Molecular docking studies and anti-snake venom metalloproteinase activity of Thai mango seed kernel extract.

Snakebite envenomations cause severe local tissue necrosis and the venom metalloproteinases are thought to be the key toxins involved. In this study, the ethanolic extract from seed kernels of Thai mango (Mangifera indica L. cv. 'Fahlun') (Anacardiaceae) and its major phenolic principle (pentagalloylglucopyranose) exhibited potent and dose-dependent inhibitory effects on the caseinolytic and fibrinogenolytic activities of Malayan pit viper and Thai cobra venoms in in vitro tests. molecular docking studies revealed that the binding orientations of the phenolic principles were in the binding pockets of snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). The phenolic principles could form hydrogen bonds with the three histidine residues in the conserved zinc-binding motif and could chelate the Zn(2+) atom of the SVMPs, which could potentially result in inhibition of the venom enzymatic activities and thereby inhibit tissue necrosis.

Molecular docking studies and anti-enzymatic activities of Thai mango seed kernel extract against snake venoms.

The ethanolic extract from seed kernels of Thai mango (MSKE) (Mangifera indica L. cv. 'Fahlun') (Anacardiaceae) and its major phenolic principle (pentagalloyl glucopyranose) exhibited dose-dependent inhibitory effects on enzymatic activities of phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)), hyaluronidase and L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO) of Calloselasma rhodostoma (CR) and Naja naja kaouthia (NK)venoms by in vitro tests. The anti-hemorrhagic and anti-dermonecrotic activities of MSKE against both venoms were clearly supported by in vivo tests. Molecular docking studies indicated that the phenolic molecules of the MSKE could selectively bind to the active sites or their proximity, or modify conserved residues that are critical for the catalysis of PLA(2), and selectively bind to the LAAO binding pocket of both CR and NK venoms and thereby inhibit their enzymatic activities. The results imply a potential use of MSKE against snake venoms.