Integrated care at the emergency department: an investment for better health.

It is crucial that policy makers, healthcare providers and relevant stakeholders understand how integrated care may be improved at our emergency departments (EDs) and what benefits that would bring. The potential that exists for right-siting care of special patient groups who could be managed in an ambulatory setting with the integration of a variety of hospital-based and community-based clinical support services is tremendous. This review describes the best practice and value of integrated care at the EDs. Local evidence is cited and compared with findings from overseas. The opportunities of care transition interventions among discharged patients are outlined, including that for paediatric patients, palliative care patients and patients with chronic diseases. This review also suggests ways to move forward to meet the aim of providing holistic care at EDs through integrated care programmes, innovation and research.

Risk Factors for Ankle Fractures in Asian Adolescents Seen in a Pediatric Emergency Department.

OBJECTIVES: Pediatric ankle injuries remain one of the most common presenting complaints to the pediatric emergency department (PED). In this study, we aimed to describe risk factors associated with simple ankle fractures and ankle fractures that require surgery, among adolescents presenting to the PED with ankle injuries. METHODS: We analyzed a retrospective cohort study of adolescents 12 to 16 years old who presented to our PED with an acute ankle injury and received an ankle radiograph from November 1, 2016, to October 31, 2017. Demographic, anthropometric variables, physical examination findings including those of the Ottawa Ankle Rules were obtained. We recorded any surgical interventions required, as well as follow-up and to return to physical activity. RESULTS: Five hundred fifty-six cases of adolescent ankle injuries were reviewed, of which 109 adolescents had ankle fractures, whereas 19 had ankle fractures requiring surgery. Sports-related injuries remained the most common cause of ankle fractures. Age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.69; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.56-0.83; P < 0.001), male sex (aOR, 2.12; 95% CI, 1.34-3.35; P < 0.001), clinical findings of tenderness over the lateral malleolus (aOR, 3.13; 95% CI, 1.74-5.64; P < 0.001) or medial malleolus (aOR, 3.55; 95% CI, 2.18-5.78; P < 0.001), and inability to walk (aOR, 3.09; 95% CI, 1.95-4.91; P < 0.001) were significant independent risk factors for ankle fractures.Patients with a weight more than 90th centile for age were at greater risk of ankle fractures requiring surgery (aOR, 2.64; 95% CI, 1.05-6.64; P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: We found that younger age, male sex, and clinical findings in the Ottawa Ankle Rules correlated well with predicting ankle fractures and are well suited for application in the Southeast Asian population. Weight greater than the 90th percentile for age was a significant risk factor for ankle fractures requiring surgery.

Pyrexia in a young infant - is height of fever associated with serious bacterial infection?

BACKGROUND: Febrile infants ≤ 90 days old make up a significant proportion of patients seeking care in the emergency department (ED). These infants are vulnerable to serious bacterial infections (SBIs) and early identification is required to initiate timely investigations and interventions. We aimed to study if height of an infant's temperature on presentation to the ED is associated with SBI. METHODS: We performed a retrospective chart review on febrile infants ≤ 90 days old presenting to our ED between 31st March 2015 and 28th February 2016. We compared triage temperature of febrile infants with and without SBIs. We presented sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values (PPV and NPV) of fever thresholds at triage. A multivariable regression was performed to study the association between height of temperature and the presence of SBI, and presented the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: Among 1057 febrile infants analysed, 207 (19.6%) had a SBI. Mean temperature of infants with a SBI was significantly higher than those without (mean 38.5 °C, standard deviation, SD 0.6 vs. 38.3 °C, SD 0.5, p < 0.005). For temperature ≥ 39 °C, sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV for SBI was 15.5% (95%CI 10.8-21.1%), 90.4% (95%CI 88.2-92.3%), 28.1% (95%CI 21.1-36.3%) and 81.4% (95%CI 80.5-82.4%) respectively. The height of fever was consistently associated with SBI after adjusting for age, gender and SIS (aOR 1.76, 95% CI 1.32-2.33, p < 0.001). However, 32 (15.5%) infants with SBIs had an initial triage temperature ≤ 38 °C. CONCLUSIONS: A higher temperature at triage was associated with a higher risk of SBI among febrile infants ≤ 90 days old. However, height of temperature must be used in conjunction with other risk factors to identify SBIs in young infants.

Associations of initial haemodynamic profiles and neurological outcomes in children with traumatic brain injury: a secondary analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Initial low systolic blood pressure (SBP) in paediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with mortality. There is limited literature on how other haemodynamic parameters including heart rate (HR); diastolic blood pressure (DBP); mean arterial pressure (MAP); and shock index, paediatric age-adjusted (SIPA) affect not only mortality but also long-term neurological outcomes in paediatric TBI. We aimed to analyse the associations of these haemodynamic variables (HR, SBP, MAP, DBP and SIPA) with mortality and long-term neurological outcomes in isolated moderate-to-severe paediatric TBI. METHODS: This was a secondary analysis of our primary study that analysed the association of TBI-associated coagulopathy with mortality and neurological outcome in isolated, moderate-to-severe paediatric head injury. A trauma registry-based, retrospective study of children <18 years old who presented to the emergency department with isolated, moderate-to-severe TBI from January 2010 to December 2016 was conducted. The association between initial haemodynamic variables and less favourable outcomes using Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended Paediatric) at 6 months post injury was analysed using logistic regression. RESULTS: Among 152 children analysed, initial systolic and diastolic hypotension (<5th percentile) (OR) for SBP 11.40, 95% CI 3.60 to 36.05, p<0.001; OR for DBP 15.75, 95% CI 3.09 to 80.21, p<0.001) and Glasgow Coma Scale scores <8 (OR 14.50, 95% CI 3.65 to 57.55, p<0.001) were associated with 'moderate-to-severe neurological disabilities', 'vegetative state' and 'death'. After adjusting for confounders, only SBP was significant (adjusted OR 5.68, 95% CI 1.40 to 23.08, p=0.015). CONCLUSIONS: Initial systolic hypotension was independently associated with mortality and moderate-to-severe neurological deficits at 6 months post injury. Further work is required to understand if early correction of hypotension will improve long-term outcomes.

Differences in radiation dose for computed tomography of the brain among pediatric patients at the emergency departments: an observational study.

BACKGROUND: Computed tomography (CT) is associated with a risk of cancer development. Strategies to reduce radiation doses vary between centers. We compared radiation doses of CT brain studies between pediatric and general emergency departments (EDs), and determine the proportion studies performed within the reference levels recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). METHODS: A retrospective review was carried out in a healthcare network consisting of one pediatric ED and three general hospital EDs. Pediatric patients less than 16 years old with CT brain studies performed between 1 January 2015 and 31 December 2018 were included. Information on demographic, diagnosis, volume-averaged computed-tomography dose index and dose length product (DLP) were collected. Effective dose was then calculated from DLP using conversion factors, termed k-coefficients which were derived using a 16 cm head CT dose phantom. RESULTS: Four hundred and seventy-nine CT brain studies were performed - 379 (79.1%) at the pediatric ED. Seizure (149, 31.1%), head injury (147, 30.7%) and altered mental status (44, 9.2%) were the top three ED diagnoses. The median effective dose estimates were higher in general than pediatric EDs, particularly for those aged > 3 to ≤6 years old [1.57 mSv (IQR 1.42-1.79) versus 1.93 mSv (IQR 1.51-2.28), p = 0.047], > 6 to ≤10 years old [1.43 mSv (IQR 1.27-1.67) versus 1.94 mSv (IQR 1.61-2.59), p = 0.002) and > 10 years old (1.68 mSv (IQR 1.32-1.72) versus 2.03 mSv (IQR 1.58-2.88), p < 0.001). Overall, 233 (48.6%) and 13 (2.7%) studies were within the reference levels recommended by ICRP 60 and 103 respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Radiation doses for CT brain studies were significantly higher at general EDs and less than half of the studies were within the reference levels recommended by ICRP. The development of diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) as a benchmark and clinical justification for performing CT studies can help reduce the radiation risks in the pediatric population.

Deep Neural Network-Based Respiratory Pathology Classification Using Cough Sounds.

Intelligent systems are transforming the world, as well as our healthcare system. We propose a deep learning-based cough sound classification model that can distinguish between children with healthy versus pathological coughs such as asthma, upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), and lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI). To train a deep neural network model, we collected a new dataset of cough sounds, labelled with a clinician's diagnosis. The chosen model is a bidirectional long-short-term memory network (BiLSTM) based on Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs) features. The resulting trained model when trained for classifying two classes of coughs-healthy or pathology (in general or belonging to a specific respiratory pathology)-reaches accuracy exceeding 84% when classifying the cough to the label provided by the physicians' diagnosis. To classify the subject's respiratory pathology condition, results of multiple cough epochs per subject were combined. The resulting prediction accuracy exceeds 91% for all three respiratory pathologies. However, when the model is trained to classify and discriminate among four classes of coughs, overall accuracy dropped: one class of pathological coughs is often misclassified as the other. However, if one considers the healthy cough classified as healthy and pathological cough classified to have some kind of pathology, then the overall accuracy of the four-class model is above 84%. A longitudinal study of MFCC feature space when comparing pathological and recovered coughs collected from the same subjects revealed the fact that pathological coughs, irrespective of the underlying conditions, occupy the same feature space making it harder to differentiate only using MFCC features.

Common diagnoses among pediatric attendances at emergency departments.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric patients present to Emergency Departments (EDs) with a variety of medical conditions. An appreciation of the common presenting conditions can aid EDs in the provision of pediatric emergency care. In this study, we established the common pediatric diagnoses seen at the general EDs, with reference to a pediatric ED. METHODS: A retrospective review of medical records was performed for patients less than 16 years old at a pediatric ED and two general EDs from 1 January to 31 December 2018. Information including patient demographics, triage category, case type and diagnoses were collected. RESULTS: There were 159,040 pediatric attendances, of which 3477 (2.2%) were seen at the general EDs. Non-traumatic conditions were most prevalent at both general (N = 1933, 55.6%) and pediatric (N = 128,415, 82.5%) EDs. There was a higher proportion of trauma related conditions seen at the general EDs (N = 1544, 44.4%) compared to the pediatric ED (N = 27,148, 17.5%; p < 0.01). Across all EDs, upper respiratory tract infection, unspecified musculoskeletal pain and gastroenteritis were the three most common non-trauma related diagnoses, while fracture, wound and contusion were the three most common trauma related diagnoses. There was a greater proportion of emergent (P1) cases seen at the general EDs (N = 233, 6.7%) than the pediatric ED (N = 3821, 2.5%; p < 0.01). Respiratory conditions including bronchiolitis, asthma and bronchitis were the most common emergent (P1) diagnoses. CONCLUSIONS: The common diagnoses among pediatric attendances varied between pediatric and general EDs. Therefore, general EDs should focus their efforts on these common diagnoses, especially the emergent (P1) ones, so that they can enhance their preparedness and work towards providing quality pediatric emergency care.

Differences in intubation outcomes for pediatric patients between pediatric and general Emergency Departments.

BACKGROUND: Intubation is a life-saving intervention at the Emergency Department (ED). However, general and pediatric EDs may vary in their preparedness to manage children with airway emergencies. AIMS: We aimed to compare rates of first-pass intubation and adverse tracheal intubation-associated events between general and pediatric EDs. METHODS: A retrospective review of medical records was conducted at a pediatric ED and three general EDs from January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2018. Information about the intubation process involving pediatric patients (less than 16 years old), as well as eventual outcomes of first-pass intubation and adverse tracheal intubation-associated events were collected and analyzed. RESULTS: There were 180 pediatric intubations, of which 115 (63.9%) were performed in pediatric ED. The median age was 2 years old (interquartile range 0-6). Intubation was most commonly performed for patients with cardiac arrest (88, 48.9%). Direct laryngoscopy was used in 178 (98.9%) cases and uncuffed tube was used in 135 (75.0%) cases. Apneic oxygenation was performed in 26 (14.4%) cases-all in pediatric ED. Intubation was predominantly performed by senior clinicians (162, 90.0%). Overall, intubation was performed successfully in 175 (97.2%) cases, with a first-pass intubation rate of 82.2% which was similar between pediatric (96, 83.5%) and general EDs (52, 80%) (Odds ratio [OR] 1.26, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.58 to 2.76, p = .558). There were 68 adverse tracheal intubation-associated events with right mainstem intubation being the most common (23, 12.8%). Pediatric EDs (44, 38.3%) had a higher rate of adverse tracheal intubation-associated events than general EDs (15, 23.1%) (OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.04 to 4.11; p = .037). CONCLUSIONS: Differences exist in intubation outcomes between pediatric and general EDs. Quality improvement efforts should focus on standardizing intubation practices across both pediatric and general EDs.

Paediatric emergency department attendances during COVID-19 and SARS in Singapore.

INTRODUCTION: We evaluated the impact of public health measures on paediatric emergency department attendances during the COVID-19 and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreaks in Singapore. METHODS: Between 1 January 2020 and 31 July 2020, we retrospectively reviewed paediatric emergency department attendances and admissions in a tertiary paediatric hospital in Singapore before and after a national lockdown to combat the spread of COVID-19 in Singapore. Hospital attendances and admissions were compared with data from a corresponding period in 2019 (1 January 2019 to 31 July 2019), as well as during and after the SARS outbreak (1 January 2003 to 31 December 2004). RESULTS: Compared with a corresponding non-outbreak period, emergency department attendances decreased in line with nationwide public health measures during the COVID-19 and SARS outbreaks (2020 and 2003 respectively), before increasing gradually following lifting of restrictions, albeit not to recorded levels before these outbreaks. During the COVID-19 outbreak, mean daily attendances decreased by 40%, from 458 per day in January-July 2019, to 274 per day in January-July 2020. The absolute number of hospital inpatient admissions decreased by 37% from January-July 2019 (19,629) to January-July 2020 (12,304). The proportion of emergency department attendances requiring admission remained similar: 20% in January-July 2019 and 21% in January-July 2020. CONCLUSION: Nationwide public health measures in Singapore have had an impact on paediatric emergency department attendances and hospital inpatient admissions. Data from this study could inform planning and resource allocation for emergency departments in Singapore and internationally.

Singapore Paediatric Resuscitation Guidelines 2021.

We present the 2021 Singapore Paediatric Resuscitation Guidelines. The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation's Pediatric Taskforce Consensus Statements on Science and Treatment Recommendations, which was published in October 2020, and the updated resuscitation guidelines from the American Heart Association and European Resuscitation Council, were reviewed and discussed by the committee. These recommendations were derived after deliberation of peer-reviewed evidence updates on paediatric resuscitation and took into consideration the local setting and clinical practice.

A retrospective review of trampoline-related injuries presenting to a paediatric emergency department in Singapore.

INTRODUCTION: Trampolining is a popular activity. However, to our knowledge, no studies on paediatric trampoline-related injuries (TRIs) have been conducted in Asia. We aimed to provide an Asian perspective on paediatric TRIs and evaluate current safety measures. METHODS: Patients aged under 16 years who presented to the emergency department at KK Women's and Children's Hospital, Singapore, from March 2012 to June 2016 with a TRI were identified from the National Trauma Registry. Data was collated retrospectively focusing on age, location of the trampoline, mechanism and location of injury, treatment, disposition, and follow-up treatment. RESULTS: 137 children were seen for a TRI during this period. There was even representation across age groups (< 6 years, 6-11 years and 11-16 years). 60.6% of these injuries occurred in a public trampoline park, and a smaller proportion involved home and school trampolines. 61.3% of injuries occurred on the trampoline and 25.5% involved a fall off it, while the remaining were incurred by hitting the trampoline frame. The most common injury was soft tissue injury, followed by fractures and dislocations, of which 16.7% required surgical intervention. Most patients were discharged to an outpatient clinic. 14.6% of all patients required admission and 9.5% eventually required surgical intervention. There were three stable head injuries and no cervical spine injuries or deaths. CONCLUSION: The existence of trampoline parks has contributed to a rise in TRIs. We recommend measures such as general education, changes in the setup around the trampoline, increasing the age limit for trampolining, adult supervision and discouraging double bouncing.

Novel Coronavirus 2019 Transmission Risk in Educational Settings.

Transmission risk of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in schools is unknown. Our investigations, especially in preschools, could not detect SARS-CoV-2 transmission despite screening of symptomatic and asymptomatic children. The data suggest that children are not the primary drivers of SARS-CoV-2 transmission in schools and could help inform exit strategies for lifting of lockdowns.

Impact of COVID-19 on pediatric emergencies and hospitalizations in Singapore.

BACKGROUND: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has impacted the provision of health services in all specialties. We aim to study the impact of COVID-19 on the utilization of pediatric hospital services including emergency department (ED) attendances, hospitalizations, diagnostic categories and resource utilization in Singapore. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of ED attendances and hospital admissions among children < 18 years old from January 1st to August 8th 2020 in a major pediatric hospital in Singapore. Data were analyzed in the following time periods: Pre-lockdown (divided by the change in Disease Outbreak Response System Condition (DORSCON) level), during-lockdown and post-lockdown. We presented the data using proportions and percentage change in mean counts per day with the corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: We attended to 58,367 children with a mean age of 5.1 years (standard deviation, SD 4.6). The mean ED attendance decreased by 331 children/day during lockdown compared to baseline (p < 0.001), attributed largely to a drop in respiratory (% change - 87.9, 95% CI - 89.3 to - 86.3, p < 0.001) and gastrointestinal infections (% change - 72.4, 95%CI - 75.9 to - 68.4, p < 0.001). Trauma-related diagnoses decreased at a slower rate across the same periods (% change - 40.0, 95%CI - 44.3 to - 35.3, p < 0.001). We saw 226 children with child abuse, with a greater proportion of total attendance seen post-lockdown (79, 0.6%) compared to baseline (36, 0.2%) (p < 0.001). In terms of ED resource utilization, there was a decrease in the overall mean number of procedures performed per day during the lockdown compared to baseline, driven largely by a reduction in blood investigations (% change - 73.9, 95%CI - 75.9 to - 71.7, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: We highlighted a significant decrease in infection-related presentations likely attributed to the lockdown and showed that the relative proportion of trauma-related attendances increased. By describing the impact of COVID-19 on health services, we report important trends that may provide guidance when planning resources for future pandemics.

Household Transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 from Adults to Children.

Knowledge of transmission dynamics of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 from adults to children in household settings is limited. We found an attack rate among 213 children in 137 households to be 6.1% in households with confirmed adult 2019 novel coronavirus disease index case(s). Transmission from adult to child occurred in only 5.2% of households. Young children <5 years old were at lowest risk of infection (1.3%). Children were most likely to be infected if the household index case was the mother.

Dynamic adaptation to COVID-19 in a Singapore paediatric emergency department.

Singapore was one of the earliest countries affected by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, with more laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases in early February 2020 than any other country outside China. This short report is a narrative review of our tertiary paediatric emergency department (ED) perspective and experience managing the evolving outbreak situation. Logistic considerations included the segregation of the ED into physically separate high-risk, intermediate-risk and low-risk areas, with risk-adapted use of personal protective equipment (PPE) for healthcare personnel in each ED area. Workflow considerations included the progressive introduction of outpatient COVID-19 testing in the ED for enhanced surveillance; adapting the admissions process particularly for high-risk and intermediate-risk cases; and the management of unwell accompanying adult caregivers. Manpower considerations included the reorganisation of medical manpower into modular teams to mitigate the risk of hospital transmission of COVID-19. Future plans for a tiered isolation facility should include structural modifications for the permanent isolation facility such as anterooms for PPE donning/doffing; replication of key ED functions in the tent facility such as a separate resuscitation room and portable X-ray room; and refresher PPE training. Dynamic reassessment of ED workflow processes, in conjunction with the hospital and national public health response, may help in managing this novel disease entity.

Personal level exposure and hazard potential of particulate matter during haze and non-haze periods in Singapore.

Severe haze episodes originating from biomass burning are common in Southeast Asia. However, there is a paucity of data on the personal exposure and characteristics of Particulate Matter (PM) present in ambient air during haze and non-haze periods. Aims of this study were to monitor 24 h ambulatory exposure to PM among school children in Singapore; characterize haze and non-haze PM for their physicochemical properties, cytotoxicity and inflammatory potential, using bronchial epithelial cell culture model (BEAS-2B). Forty-six children had ambulatory PM exposure monitored using portable Aethalometer and their hourly activity recorded. The mean (±SE) PM exposure on a typical school day was 3343 (±174.4) ng/m3/min. Higher PM exposure was observed during haze periods and during commuting to and from the school. Characterization of PM collected showed a drastic increase in the proportion of ultrafine particle (UFP) in haze PM. These PM fraction showed higher level of sulphur, potassium and trace metals in comparison to those collected during non-haze periods. Dose dependent increases in abiotic reactive oxygen species generation, activation of NF-κB and cytotoxicity were observed for both haze and non-haze PM. Generally, haze PM induced significantly higher release of IL-6, IL-8 and TNFα by BEAS-2B cells in comparison to non-haze PM. In summary, this study provides experimental evidence for higher PM exposure during haze period which has the potential to elicit oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine release from airway epithelial cells.

Differences in Utilisation of the General and Paediatric Emergency Departments by Paediatric Patients.

INTRODUCTION: Paediatric patients presenting to the general emergency departments (EDs) differ from those presenting to paediatric EDs. General EDs vary in preparedness to manage paediatric patients, which may affect delivery of emergency care with varying clinical outcomes. We aimed to elucidate the differences in utilisation patterns of paediatric and general EDs by paediatric patients. METHODS: This study was conducted in a public healthcare cluster in Singapore consisting of 4 hospitals. A retrospective review of the medical records of paediatric patients, defined as age younger than 16 years old, who attended the EDs from 1 January 2015 to 31 December 2018, was performed. Data were collected using a standardised form and analysed. RESULTS: Of the 704,582 attendances, 686,546 (97.4%) were seen at the paediatric ED. General EDs saw greater number of paediatric patients in the emergent (P1) category (921 [5.1%] versus 14,829 [2.2%]; P<0.01) and those with trauma-related presentations (6,669 [37.0%] vs 108,822 [15.9%]; P<0.01). The mortality of paediatric patients was low overall but significantly higher in general EDs (39 [0.2%] vs 32 [0.005%]; P<0.01). Seizure, asthma/bronchitis/bronchiolitis, allergic reaction, cardiac arrest and burns were the top 5 diagnoses that accounted for 517 (56.1%) of all emergent (P1) cases seen at general EDs. CONCLUSION: General EDs need to build their capabilities and enhance their preparedness according to the paediatric population they serve so that optimal paediatric emergency care can be delivered, especially for critically ill patients who are most in need of life-saving and timely treatment.

Analysis of emergency department prediction tools in evaluating febrile young infants at risk for serious infections.

OBJECTIVE: Febrile infants≤3 months old constitute a vulnerable group at risk of serious infections (SI). We aimed to (1) study the test performance of two clinical assessment tools-the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Traffic Light System and Severity Index Score (SIS) in predicting SI among all febrile young infants and (2) evaluate the performance of three low-risk criteria-the Rochester Criteria (RC), Philadelphia Criteria (PC) and Boston Criteria (BC) among well-looking febrile infants. METHODS: A retrospective validation study was conducted. Serious illness included both bacterial and serious viral illness such as meningitis and encephalitis. We included febrile infants≤3 months old presenting to a paediatric emergency department in Singapore between March 2015 and February 2016. Infants were assigned to high-risk and low-risk groups for SI according to each of the five tools. We compared the performance of the NICE guideline and SIS at initial clinical assessment for all infants and the low-risk criteria-RC, PC and BC-among well-looking infants. We presented their performance using sensitivity, specificity, positive, negative predictive values and likelihood ratios. RESULTS: Of 1057 infants analysed, 326 (30.8%) were diagnosed with SI. The NICE guideline had an overall sensitivity of 93.3% (95% CI 90.0 to 95.7), while the SIS had a sensitivity of 79.1% (95% CI 74.3 to 83.4). The incidence of SI was similar among infants who were well-looking and those who were not. Among the low-risk criteria, the RC performed with the highest sensitivity in infants aged 0-28 days (98.2%, 95% CI 90.3% to 100.0%) and 29-60 days (92.4%, 95% CI 86.0% to 96.5%), while the PC performed best in infants aged 61-90 days (100.0%, 95% CI 95.4% to 100.0%). CONCLUSIONS: The NICE guideline achieved high sensitivity in our study population, and the RC had the highest sensitivity in predicting for SI among well-appearing febrile infants. Prospective validation is required.