Electron transfer in oriented donor-acceptor dyads, intralayer charge migration, and formation of interlayer charge separated states in multi-layered Langmuir-Schäfer films.

Photoinduced intra- and interlayer electron transfer (ET) of doubly bridged donor-acceptor molecule, porphyrin-fullerene dyad (PF), was studied in single- and multi-layered Langmuir-Schäfer (LS) films and in LS films, where PF and an efficient electron donating polymer polyhexyltiophene (PHT) formed a bilayer PHT/PF and multi-layered PHT/PF structures. The ET through layers were investigated by a method, which measures the photovoltaic (PV) response proportional to the number of charge-separated (CS) states and to the CS distance between the electrons and holes formed in pulsed photo-excitation. Primary conclusions were, that ET starts as formations of CS dyads (P+F-) in single-layers, continues as long-range intra-layer charge migrations following interlayer CS between two adjacent monolayers. Quantitative conclusions were, that the interlayer ET efficiency is 100% in the bi-layered PF structure (2PF), where two CS dyads in adjacent layers forms CS complexes (P+F/PF-) and that the probability to form longer or higher order of CS complexes follows an expression of a convergent geometric series, with a converting factor of 2/3. In the PHT/PF bilayer structure the ET efficiency was one order of magnitude higher, than that for the 2PF structure due to the ET from the CS dyads to ground state electron donor PHT, with an acceptor density, much higher than that of (P+F-).

Tailored Fabrication of Transferable and Hollow Weblike Titanium Dioxide Structures.

The preparation of weblike titanium dioxide thin films by atomic layer deposition on cellulose biotemplates is reported. The method produces a TiO2 web, which is flexible and transferable from the deposition substrate to that of the end application. Removal of the cellulose template by calcination converts the amorphous titania to crystalline anatase and gives the structure a hollow morphology. The TiO2 webs are thoroughly characterized using electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to give new insight into manufacturing of porous titanium dioxide structures by means of template-based methods. Functionality and integrity of the TiO2 hollow weblike thin films were successfully confirmed by applying them as electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells.

Photoinduced Electron Transfer in 9-Substituted 10-Methylacridinium Ions.

A series of 9-substituted 10-methylacridinium ions (Acr+ -R) in which an electron-donor moiety (R) is directly linked with an electron-acceptor moiety (Acr+ ) at the 9-position was synthesized, and the photodynamics was fully investigated to determine the rate constants of photoinduced electron transfer (ET) and back electron transfer. The driving forces of photoinduced electron transfer and back electron transfer were determined by means of electrochemical and photophysical measurements. The dependence of the ET rate constants on driving force was well analyzed in the light of the Marcus theory of ET. The quantum yields of formation of the triplet ET states vary significantly, depending on the interaction between the donor (R) and acceptor (Acr+ ) moieties. Among the Acr+ -R examined, the 9-mesityl-10-methylacridinium ion (Acr+ -Mes) exhibits the best performance in terms of the lifetime of the triplet ET state and the quantum yield. Photoexcitation of Acr+ -Mes results in formation of the triplet ET state [3 (Acr. -Mes.+ )], which has a long lifetime, a high energy (2.37 eV), and a high quantum yield (>75 %) in acetonitrile. The triplet ET state exhibits both the oxidizing and reducing activity of the Mes.+ and Acr. moieties, respectively.

Syntheses, Charge Separation, and Inverted Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cell Application of Phenothiazine-Fullerene Dyads.

A series of phenothiazine-fulleropyrrolidine (PTZ-C60) dyads having fullerene either at the C-3 aromatic ring position or at the N-position of phenothiazine macrocycle were newly synthesized and characterized. Photoinduced electron transfer leading to PTZ(•+)-C60(•-) charge-separated species was established from studies involving femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy. Because of the close proximity of the donor and acceptor entities, the C-3 ring substituted PTZ-C60 dyads revealed faster charge separation and charge recombination processes than that observed in the dyad functionalized through the N-position. Next, inverted organic bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells were constructed using the dyads in place of traditionally used [6,6]-phenyl-C61- butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) and an additional electron donor material poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT). The performance of the C-3 ring substituted PTZ-C60 dyad having a polyethylene glycol substituent produced a power conversion efficiency of 3.5% under inverted bulk heterojunction (BHJ) configuration. This was attributed to optimal BHJ morphology between the polymer and the dyad, which was further promoted by the efficient intramolecular charge separation and relatively slow charge recombination promoted by the dyad within the BHJ structure. The present finding demonstrate PTZ-C60 dyads as being good prospective materials for building organic photovoltaic devices.

Synthesis of Benzothiadiazole Derivatives by Applying C-C Cross-Couplings.

The benzothiadiazole moiety has been extensively exploited as a building block in the syntheses of efficient organic semiconducting materials during the past decade. In this paper, parallel synthetic routes to benzothiadiazole derivatives, inspired by previous computational findings, are reported. The results presented here show that various C-C cross-couplings of benzothiadiazole, thiophene, and thiazole derivatives can be efficiently performed by applying Xantphos as a ligand of the catalyst system. Moreover, improved and convenient methods to synthesize important chemical building blocks, e.g., 4,7-dibromo-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole, in good to quantitative yields are presented. Additionally, the feasibility of Suzuki-Miyaura and direct coupling methods are compared in the synthesis of target benzothiadiazole derivatives. The computational characterization of the prepared benzothiadiazole derivatives shows that these compounds have planar molecular backbones and the possibility of intramolecular charge transfer upon excitation. The experimental electrochemical and spectroscopic studies reveal that although the compounds have similar electronic and optical properties in solution, they behave differently in solid state due to the different alkyl side-group substitutions in the molecular backbone. These benzothiadiazole derivatives can be potentially used as building blocks in the construction of more advanced small molecule organic semiconductors with acceptor-donor-acceptor motifs.

Color Bricks: Building Highly Organized and Strongly Absorbing Multicomponent Arrays of Terpyridyl Perylenes on Metal Oxide Surfaces.

Terpyridine-substituted perylenes containing cyclic anhydrides in the peri position were synthesized. The anhydride group served as an anchor for assembly of the terpyridyl-crowned chromophores as monomolecular layers on metal oxide surfaces. Further coordination with Zn(2+) ions allowed for layer-by-layer formation of supramolecular assemblies of perylene imides on the solid substrates. With properly selected anchor and linker molecules it was possible to build high quality structures of greater than ten successive layers by a simple and straightforward procedure. The prepared films were stable and had a broad spectral coverage and high absorbance. To demonstrate their potential use, the synthesized dyes were employed in solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells, and electron injection from the perylene antennas to titanium dioxide was observed.

Subpicosecond to Second Time-Scale Charge Carrier Kinetics in Hematite-Titania Nanocomposite Photoanodes.

Water splitting with hematite is negatively affected by poor intrinsic charge transport properties. However, they can be modified by forming heterojunctions to improve charge separation. For this purpose, charge dynamics of TiO2:α-Fe2O3 nanocomposite photoanodes are studied using transient absorption spectroscopy to monitor the evolution of photogenerated charge carriers as a function of applied bias voltage. The bias affects the charge carrier dynamics, leading to trapped electrons in the submillisecond time scale and an accumulation of holes with a lifetime of 0.4 ± 0.1 s. By contrast, slower electron trapping and only few long-lived holes are observed in a bare hematite photoanode. The decay of the long-lived holes is 1 order of magnitude faster for the composite photoanodes than previously published for doped hematite, indicative of higher catalytic efficiency. These results illustrate the advantages of using composite materials to overcome poor charge carrier dynamics, leading to a 30-fold enhancement in photocurrent.

Molecular interactions on single-walled carbon nanotubes revealed by high-resolution transmission microscopy.

The close solid-state structure-property relationships of organic π-aromatic molecules have attracted interest due to their implications for the design of organic functional materials. In particular, a dimeric structure, that is, a unit consisting of two molecules, is required for precisely evaluating intermolecular interactions. Here, we show that the sidewall of a single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) represents a unique molecular dimer platform that can be directly visualized using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. Pyrene is chosen as the π-aromatic molecule; its dimer is covalently linked to the SWNT sidewalls by aryl addition. Reflecting the orientation and separation of the two molecules, the pyrene dimer on the SWNT exhibits characteristic optical and photophysical properties. The methodology discussed here­form and probe molecular dimers­is highly promising for the creation of unique models and provides indispensable and fundamental information regarding molecular interactions.

Synthesis and Photophysical Properties of Two Diazaporphyrin-Porphyrin Hetero Dimers in Polar and Nonpolar Solutions.

Two diazaporphyrin (DAP)-porphyrin hetero dimers, in ß-meso and ß-ß configurations, were prepared to study their photoinduced intramolecular electron transfer properties. The two meso nitrogen atoms in the porphyrin ring of DAP change its redox potential, making DAP more easily reduced, compared to its porphyrin counterpart. A charge-transfer from porphyrin to DAP in both hetero dimers was verified by versatile optical spectroscopic methods. The steady-state fluorescence spectra indicated an efficient intramolecular exciplex formation for both dimers. For the ß-meso dimer, ultrafast time-resolved spectroscopic methods revealed the subpicosecond formation of two types of primary short-living (1-18 ps) intramolecular exciplexes, which relaxed in toluene to form a long-living final exciplex (1.4 ns) followed by a longer-living charge transfer complex (>5 ns). However, in benzonitrile, the lifetime of the final exciplex was longer (660 ps) as was that of the charge transfer complex (180 ps). The ß-ß analogue formed similar short-living exciplexes in both solvents, but the final exciplex and the charge transfer state had significantly shorter lifetimes. The electrochemical redox potential measurements and density functional theory calculations supported the proposed mechanism.

Polymorph crystal packing effects on charge transfer emission in the solid state.

Condensation of 1,8-naphthalic anhydride with N,N-(dimethylamino)aniline produced the donor-acceptor compound DMIM, which crystallised from a chloroform-diethyl ether mixture to afford two different coloured crystal polymorphs. Crystals for one polymorph are small and green, whereas the other crystals are orange and needle-like. X-ray crystal structures for both polymorphs were determined. The donor N,N-dimethylaniline and acceptor naphthalimide groups are twisted with respect to each other; the degree of twist is marginally different for the two structures. The orange crystal polymorph crystallises in the monoclinic space group C2/c and contains two slightly different molecular conformers in the unit cell (calculated density is 1.410 g cm-3). The green crystal polymorph crystallises in the triclinic space group P1 and contains only one type of molecule in the unit cell (calculated density is 1.401 g cm-3). The crystal packing motifs for the two polymorphs are subtly different, explaining the small variance in the observed densities. Very weak room temperature emission was observed for DMIM in a CHCl3 solution, but crystals deposited on a glass slide glowed when irradiated at 488 nm using a fluorescence microscope. Disparate solid-state emission spectra and lifetimes for the two polymorphic crystal forms are observed for the dyad. The emission is assigned to charge recombination fluorescence from a charge transfer state.

Ultrafast photophysical processes for Fe(III)-carboxylates.

Photochemical reactions with the participation of iron(iii) carboxylates are important for environmental photochemistry and have a great potential of application in water purification (advanced oxidation processes, photo-Fenton and Fenton-like processes). In spite of this, information about excited states and primary intermediates in the photochemistry of Fe(iii) complexes with carboxylic acids is scarce. This mini-review presents and discusses the results of several recent publications in the field of ultrafast spectroscopy of natural Fe(iii) carboxylates.

ROFRET: a molecular-scale fluorescent probe displaying viscosity-enhanced intramolecular Förster energy transfer.

The fluorescent probe ROFRET contains a Bodipy molecular rotor connected through a short triazole-based spacer to a fully alkylated Bodipy. Förster resonance energy transfer takes place from the rotor to the other Bodipy, and is enhanced to a limiting value as the viscosity of the solvent increases. Time-resolved spectroscopy and steady-state studies are consistent with both forward and reverse energy transfer, and delayed fluorescence.

Femtosecond spectroscopy of the dithiolate Cu(II) and Ni(II) complexes.

Femtosecond spectroscopy was applied to study the ultrafast dynamics for the excited states of dithiolate Cu(ii) and Ni(ii) complexes. The detailed information on the initial steps after the absorption of a photon by the metal complexes is of fundamental importance to understand the mechanism of photochemical reactions. The fast processes for the dithiolate complexes have hardly been studied. In this review the spectra of transients and their lifetimes will be presented. For example, the xanthogenate Ni(S2COEt)2 complex in acetonitrile and CCl4 after the pulse of the second harmonic (100 fs, 400 nm) of a Ti:S laser moves to the excited (1)LMCT state which decays in 0.76 ps to the excited (3)LF state. In 6.8 ps the (3)LF state undergoes vibrational cooling and then it slowly decays in 550 ps to the ground state. However, for many dithiolate complexes the kinetic curves can be well treated in a two-exponential approximation. A short time (less than 1 ps) may include several processes (relaxation of the Franck-Condon state, redistribution of vibrational energy (IVR), internal conversion (IC) and intersystem crossing (ISC)). A long time (a few picoseconds) usually reflects the vibrational cooling of the ground state. The quantum yields of the dithiolate and dithiolene complex disappearance in halogen containing solvents have a strong dependence on the wavelength of irradiation. It is very likely that electron transfer to the acceptor becomes effective when the electron in the excited complex moves to antibonding ligand orbitals localized at the periphery of the complex close to the acceptor molecule (halogenated solvent).

Excited state intramolecular proton transfer in π-expanded phenazine-derived phenols.

Two previously inaccessible analogs of 10-hydroxybenzo[h]quinoline were prepared via a straightforward strategy comprising the formation of π-expanded phenazines skeleton followed by C-H acetoxylation at position 10. Two bis-phenols possessing C2 and D2 symmetry were obtained in yields of 52% and 15%, respectively. The occurrence of excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) was detected in all cases because steady state emission was observed only from the excited keto-tautomer. Additionally, a short-lived, ∼0.1 ps, emission decay was resolved by the femtosecond up-conversion technique at the blue side of the keto-tautomer emission band, 610 nm, and was attributed to the ESIPT, i.e., conversion from enol to keto tautomer. In comparison with the corresponding 10-hydroxybenzo[h]quinoline emissions, the emission spectrum of the π-expanded phenazine analogues were weaker but displayed a characteristic bathochromically shift into NIR region. These phenazine analogues constitute one of largest heterocycles for which ESIPT was unambiguously detected.

Independent versus cooperative binding in polyethylenimine-DNA and Poly(L-lysine)-DNA polyplexes.

The mechanism of polyethylenimine-DNA and poly(L-lysine)-DNA complex formation at pH 5.2 and 7.4 was studied by a time-resolved spectroscopic method. The formation of a polyplex core was observed to be complete at approximately N/P = 2, at which point nearly all DNA phosphate groups were bound by polymer amine groups. The data were analyzed further both by an independent binding model and by a cooperative model for multivalent ligand binding to multisubunit substrate. At pH 5.2, the polyplex formation was cooperative at all N/P ratios, whereas for pH 7.4 at N/P < 0.6 the polyplex formation followed independent binding changing to cooperative binding at higher N/Ps.

Excited-state interaction of red and green perylene diimides with luminescent Ru(II) polypyridine complex.

Three new perylene diimide (PDI)-based ligands have been synthesized by the covalent attachment of dipyrido[a,c]phenazine moiety to one of the bay-positions of PDI, while the second position has been substituted with either a 4-tert-butylphenoxy or a pyrrolidinyl group to obtain two types of chromophores, Ph-PDI and Py-PDI, respectively, with distinct properties. In the case of Py-PDI, the resultant 1,7- and 1,6-regioisomers have been successfully separated by column chromatography and characterized by (1)H NMR spectroscopy. The ligands have been employed to prepare donor-acceptor-based ensembles incorporating the covalently linked PDI and Ru(II) polypyridine complex as the acting chromophores. A comprehensive study of the excited-state photodynamics of the ensembles has been performed by means of electrochemical and steady state and time-resolved spectroscopic methods. Although, in all the three ensembles, the photoexcitation of either chromophore resulted in a long-lived triplet excited state of PDI ((3)PDI) as the final excited state, the photochemical reactions leading to the triplet states were found to be essentially different for the two types of the ensembles. In the case of the Ph-PDI-based ensemble, the excitation of either chromophore leads to the electron transfer from the Ru(II) complex to Ph-PDI, whereas for the Py-PDI-based ensembles, the electron transfer is observed in the opposite direction and only when the Ru(II) complex is excited. The difference in the behavior was rationalized based on electrochemical study of the compounds, which has shown that the Ph-PDI chromophore is a better electron acceptor and the Py-PDI chromophores are relatively better electron donors. This study shows a chemical approach to control the photoreactions in PDI-based dichromophoric ensembles including the possibility to switch the direction of the photoinduced electron transfer.

Supramolecular assemblies of bay-substituted perylene diimides in solution and on a solid substrate.

Perylene diimides (PDIs) substituted with a terpyridine moiety at the bay-region have been synthesized. These building blocks were used to construct supramolecular complexes in chloroform. A dimer and a trimer were built via the bay-region complexation with zinc. The PDI compounds were further modified to have silane anchors and PDI self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) were prepared on a quartz substrate. Complexation of metal ions was also done on the surface, and this was observed clearly in the absorption spectrum. These studies on the surface show possible progress in the study of supramolecular multilayer structures.

Tuning the Förster overlap integral: energy transfer over 20 Ångstroms from a pyrene-based donor to borondipyrromethene (Bodipy).

A linear molecular dyad was synthesised comprising a pyrene-thiophene energy donor linked via a triazole unit to a borondipyrromethene (Bodipy) energy acceptor. The donor to acceptor separation distance is around 20 Å. Emission from the donor originates from a mixed π-π* and partial charge-transfer state and overlaps favourably with the absorption profile for the acceptor. The level of spectral overlap is dependent on the solvent polarity. Rates for electronic energy transfer were measured by transient absorption spectroscopy in solvents of varying polarity and refractive index. The measured rates for Förster energy transfer (k(EET)) correlate fairly well with the calculated overlap integrals (J(F)). A sigmoidal relationship is observed between k(EET) and the solvent polarity function ΔF.

The effect and role of carbon atoms in poly(ß-amino ester)s for DNA binding and gene delivery.

Polymeric vectors for gene delivery are a promising alternative for clinical applications, as they are generally safer than viral counterparts. Our objective was to further our mechanistic understanding of polymer structure-function relationships to allow the rational design of new biomaterials. Utilizing poly(ß-amino ester)s (PBAEs), we investigated polymer-DNA binding by systematically varying the polymer molecular weight, adding single carbons to the backbone and side chain of the monomers that constitute the polymers, and varying the type of polymer end group. We then sought to correlate how PBAE binding affects the polyplex diameter and ζ potential, the transfection efficacy, and its associated cytotoxicity in human breast and brain cancer cells in vitro. Among other trends, we observed in both cell lines that the PBAE-DNA binding constant is biphasic with the transfection efficacy and that the optimal values of the binding constant with respect to the transfection efficacy are in the range (1-6) × 10(4) M(-1). A binding constant in this range is necessary but not sufficient for effective transfection.

Direct evidence of significantly different chemical behavior and excited-state dynamics of 1,7- and 1,6-regioisomers of pyrrolidinyl-substituted perylene diimide.

Novel bay-functionalized perylene diimides with additional substitution sites close to the perylene core have been prepared by the reaction between 1,7(6)-dibromoperylene diimide 6 (dibromo-PDI) and 2-(benzyloxymethyl)pyrrolidine 5. Distinct differences in the chemical behaviors of the 1,7- and 1,6-regioisomers have been discerned. While the 1,6-dibromo-PDI produced the corresponding 1,6-bis-substituted derivative more efficiently, the 1,7-dibromo-PDI underwent predominant mono-debromination, yielding a mono-substituted PDI along with a small amount of the corresponding 1,7-bis-substituted compound. By varying the reaction conditions, a controlled stepwise bis-substitution of the bromo substituents was also achieved, allowing the direct synthesis of asymmetrical 1,6- and 1,7-PDIs. The compounds were isolated as individual regioisomers. Fullerene (C60) was then covalently linked at the bay region of the newly prepared PDIs. In this way, two separate sets of perylene diimide-fullerene dyads, namely single-bridged (SB-1,7-PDI-C60 and SB-1,6-PDI-C60) and double-bridged (DB-1,7-PDI-C60 and DB-1,6-PDI-C60), were synthesized. The fullerene was intentionally attached at the bay region of the PDI to achieve close proximity of the two chromophores and to ensure an efficient photoinduced electron transfer. A detailed study of the photodynamics has revealed that photoinduced electron transfer from the perylene diimide chromophore to the fullerene occurs in all four dyads in polar benzonitrile, and also occurs in the single-bridged dyads in nonpolar toluene. The process was found to be substantially faster and more efficient in the dyads containing the 1,7-regioisomer, both for the singly- and double-bridged molecules. In the case of the single-bridged dyads, SB-1,7-PDI-C60 and SB-1,6-PDI-C60, different relaxation pathways of their charge-separated states have been discovered. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first observation of photoinduced electron transfer in PDI-C60 dyads in a nonpolar medium.