Assessing the effects of an 8-week mindfulness training program on neural oscillations and self-reports during meditation practice.

Previous literature suggests that mindfulness meditation can have positive effects on mental health, however, its mechanisms of action are still unclear. In this pre-registered study, we investigate the effects of mindfulness training on lapses of attention (and their associated neural correlates) during meditation practice. For this purpose, we recorded Electroencephalogram (EEG) during meditation practice before and after 8 weeks of mindfulness training (or waitlist) in 41 participants (21 treatment and 20 controls). In order to detect lapses of attention and characterize their EEG correlates, we interrupted participants during meditation to report their level of focus and drowsiness. First, we show that self-reported lapses of attention during meditation practice were associated to an increased occurrence of theta oscillations (3-6 Hz), which were slower in frequency and more spatially widespread than theta oscillations occurring during focused attention states. Then, we show that mindfulness training did not reduce the occurrence of lapses of attention nor their associated EEG correlate (i.e. theta oscillations) during meditation. Instead, we find that mindfulness training was associated with a significant slowing of alpha oscillations in frontal electrodes during meditation. Crucially, frontal alpha slowing during meditation practice has been reported in experienced meditators and is thought to reflect relative decreases in arousal levels. Together, our findings provide insights into the EEG correlates of mindfulness meditation, which could have important implications for the identification of its mechanisms of action and/or the development of neuromodulation protocols aimed at facilitating meditation practice.

Mindfulness-based therapy improves brain functional network reconfiguration efficiency.

Mindfulness-based interventions are showing increasing promise as a treatment for psychological disorders, with improvements in cognition and emotion regulation after intervention. Understanding the changes in functional brain activity and neural plasticity that underlie these benefits from mindfulness interventions is thus of interest in current neuroimaging research. Previous studies have found functional brain changes during resting and task states to be associated with mindfulness both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, particularly in the executive control, default mode and salience networks. However, limited research has combined information from rest and task to study mindfulness-related functional changes in the brain, particularly in the context of intervention studies with active controls. Recent work has found that the reconfiguration efficiency of brain activity patterns between rest and task states is behaviorally relevant in healthy young adults. Thus, we applied this measure to investigate how mindfulness intervention changed functional reconfiguration between rest and a breath-counting task in elderly participants with self-reported sleep difficulties. Improving on previous longitudinal designs, we compared the intervention effects of a mindfulness-based therapy to an active control (sleep hygiene) intervention. We found that mindfulness intervention improved self-reported mindfulness measures and brain functional reconfiguration efficiency in the executive control, default mode and salience networks, though the brain and behavioral changes were not associated with each other. Our findings suggest that neuroplasticity may be induced through regular mindfulness practice, thus bringing the intrinsic functional configuration in participants' brains closer to a state required for mindful awareness.

The societal cost of modifiable risk factors in Singapore.

BACKGROUND: Singapore is one of the most rapidly ageing populations in the world. Nearly half of all disease burdens in Singapore are attributable to modifiable risk factors. This indicates that many illnesses are preventable by modifying behaviours such as increasing physical activity levels or maintaining a healthy diet. Prior cost-of-illness studies have estimated the cost of selected modifiable risk factors. However, no local study has compared costs between groups of modifiable risks. This study aims to estimate the societal cost attributable to a comprehensive list of modifiable risks in Singapore. METHODS: Our study builds on the comparative risk assessment framework from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2019 study. A top-down prevalence-based cost-of-illness approach was undertaken to estimate the societal cost of modifiable risks in 2019. These include healthcare costs from inpatient hospitalisation and productivity losses from absenteeism and premature mortality. RESULTS: Metabolic risks had the highest total cost of US$1.62 billion (95% uncertainty interval [UI] US$1.51-1.84 billion), followed by lifestyle risks of US$1.40 billion (95% UI US$1.36-1.66 billion) and substance risks of US$1.15 billion (95% UI US$1.10-1.24 billion). Across the risk factors, the costs were driven by productivity losses, heavily skewed towards the older working-age group and among males. Most of the costs were driven by cardiovascular diseases. CONCLUSION: This study provides evidence of the high societal cost of modifiable risks and highlights the importance of developing holistic public health promotion programmes. As modifiable risks often do not occur in isolation, implementing effective population-based programmes targeting multiple modifiable risks has a strong potential to manage the cost of the rising disease burden in Singapore.

Mindfulness-based therapy for insomnia for older adults with sleep difficulties: a randomized clinical trial.

OBJECTIVE: Poor sleep is a modifiable risk factor for multiple disorders. Frontline treatments (e.g. cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia) have limitations, prompting a search for alternative approaches. Here, we compare manualized Mindfulness-Based Therapy for Insomnia (MBTI) with a Sleep Hygiene, Education, and Exercise Program (SHEEP) in improving subjective and objective sleep outcomes in older adults. METHODS: We conducted a single-site, parallel-arm trial, with blinded assessments collected at baseline, post-intervention and 6-months follow-up. We randomized 127 participants aged 50-80, with a Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) score ⩾5, to either MBTI (n = 65) or SHEEP (n = 62), both 2 hr weekly group sessions lasting 8 weeks. Primary outcomes included PSQI and Insomnia Severity Index, and actigraphy- and polysomnography-measured sleep onset latency (SOL) and wake after sleep onset (WASO). RESULTS: Intention-to-treat analysis showed reductions in insomnia severity in both groups [MBTI: Cohen's effect size d = -1.27, 95% confidence interval (CI) -1.61 to -0.89; SHEEP: d = -0.69, 95% CI -0.96 to -0.43], with significantly greater improvement in MBTI. Sleep quality improved equivalently in both groups (MBTI: d = -1.19; SHEEP: d = -1.02). No significant interaction effects were observed in objective sleep measures. However, only MBTI had reduced WASOactigraphy (MBTI: d = -0.30; SHEEP: d = 0.02), SOLactigraphy (MBTI: d = -0.25; SHEEP: d = -0.09), and WASOPSG (MBTI: d = -0.26; SHEEP (d = -0.18). There was no change in SOLPSG. No participants withdrew because of adverse effects. CONCLUSIONS: MBTI is effective at improving subjective and objective sleep quality in older adults, and could be a valid alternative for persons who have failed or do not have access to standard frontline therapies.

Effects of mindfulness-based therapy for insomnia and a sleep hygiene/exercise programme on subjective-objective sleep discrepancy in older adults with sleep disturbances: Exploratory secondary analysis of a randomised clinical trial.

Older adults with poor sleep tend to show a discrepancy between objective and self-reported sleep parameters, which can trigger a vicious cycle that worsens their sleep complaints. Cognitive-behavioural therapy can reduce this discrepancy, but alternative behavioural therapies remain untested. The present exploratory study aimed to investigate the effects of mindfulness-based therapy for insomnia (MBTI) on reducing sleep discrepancies in comparison with a sleep hygiene, education, and exercise programme (SHEEP). Older adults were randomly allocated into the mindfulness-based therapy for insomnia group (n = 55) or the sleep hygiene, education, and exercise programme group (n = 58). Subjective and objective sleep parameters were measured using sleep diaries, polysomnography (PSG), and actigraphy. Sleep discrepancies were calculated using the Bland-Altman method for sleep onset latency (SOL) and wake after sleep onset (WASO). Additionally, correlations between the change in sleep discrepancies and the change in subjective sleep quality and trait mindfulness were measured within each group. Sleep onset latency discrepancy measured by polysomnography and actigraphy decreased significantly after the MBTI and SHEEP interventions. In contrast, there was no significant change in wake after sleep onset discrepancy in either group. The change in sleep onset latency discrepancy was correlated with the change in insomnia symptoms and objectively measured trait mindfulness. Mindfulness-based therapy for insomnia was effective in reducing sleep onset latency discrepancies and improving sleep perception in older adults with sleep disturbances, which in turn drove an improvement in sleep quality and insomnia symptoms. Increases in trait mindfulness may have been an important mechanism in improving sleep perception in the mindfulness-based therapy for insomnia group.

Dissociable changes in sleep architecture with mindfulness and sleep hygiene intervention in older adults: Secondary and exploratory analysis of polysomnography data from the Mindfulness Sleep Therapy (MIST) trial.

OBJECTIVES: We conducted a secondary analysis of the Mindfulness Sleep Therapy study, a randomized controlled trial testing Mindfulness-Based Therapy for Insomnia (MBTI) against a sleep hygiene education and exercise program (SHEEP). We investigated whether the interventions led to changes in sleep macroarchitecture (N2, N3 and REM), and microarchitecture (sleep fragmentation, slow wave activity, spectral band power) measured by ambulatory polysomnography (PSG). METHODS: 48 MBTI and 46 SHEEP participants provided usable PSG and subjective sleep quality data both pre- and post intervention. The interventions consisted of 8 weekly 2-hour group sessions, and daily practice. PSG data were staged according to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine criteria by 2 technicians blind to time point and condition. Repeated-measures ANOVA and permutation analysis were used to test for differences over time and between the interventions. RESULTS: Self-reported sleep quality improved in both study groups. We observed significant increases in N2 in MBTI but not SHEEP (p = .045), and significant increases in N3 in SHEEP but not MBTI (p = .012). No significant differences over time or between group were observed in N1, REM, or sleep fragmentation. Higher frequency non-REM EEG power decreased in SHEEP but not MBTI. Slow wave activity and slow wave activity dissipation did not differ over time or between groups. Among all variables, significant time by group interactions were observed in only N3 and non-REM alpha power. CONCLUSIONS: MBTI and sleep hygiene education had different effects on sleep macro and microarchitecture, suggesting that the underlying mechanisms of mindfulness training in improving sleep quality may differ from traditional interventions.

Inter-relationships between changes in stress, mindfulness, and dynamic functional connectivity in response to a social stressor.

We conducted a study to understand how dynamic functional brain connectivity contributes to the moderating effect of trait mindfulness on the stress response. 40 male participants provided subjective reports of stress, cortisol assays, and functional MRI before and after undergoing a social stressor. Self-reported trait mindfulness was also collected. Experiencing stress led to significant decreases in the prevalence of a connectivity state previously associated with mindfulness, but no changes in two connectivity states with prior links to arousal. Connectivity did not return to baseline 30 min after stress. Higher trait mindfulness was associated with attenuated affective and neuroendocrine stress response, and smaller decreases in the mindfulness-related connectivity state. In contrast, we found no association between affective response and functional connectivity. Taken together, these data allow us to construct a preliminary brain-behaviour model of how mindfulness dampens stress reactivity and demonstrate the utility of time-varying functional connectivity in understanding psychological state changes.

Predicting vigilance vulnerability during 1 and 2 weeks of sleep restriction with baseline performance metrics.

Study Objectives: We attempted to predict vigilance performance in adolescents during partial sleep deprivation using task summary metrics and drift diffusion modelling measures (DDM) derived from baseline vigilance performance. Methods: In the Need for Sleep studies, 57 adolescents (age = 15-19 years) underwent two baseline nights of 9-h time-in-bed (TIB), followed by two cycles of weekday sleep-restricted nights (5-h or 6.5-h TIB) and weekend recovery nights (9-h TIB). Vigilance was assessed daily with the Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT), with the number of lapses (response times ≥ 500 ms) as the primary outcome measure. The two DDM predictors were drift rate, which quantifies the speed of information accumulation and determines how quickly an individual derives a decision response, and non-decision time range, which indicates within-subject variation in physical, non-cognitive responding, e.g. motor actions. Results: In the first week of sleep curtailment, faster accumulation of lapses was significantly associated with more lapses at baseline (p = .02), but not the two baseline DDM metrics: drift and non-decision time range (p > .07). On the other hand, faster accumulation of lapses and greater increment in reaction time variability from the first to the second week of sleep restriction were associated with lower drift (p < .007) at baseline. Conclusions: Among adolescents, baseline PVT lapses can predict inter-individual differences in vigilance vulnerability during 1 week of sleep restriction on weekdays, while drift more consistently predicts vulnerability during more weeks of sleep curtailment. Clinical Trial Information: Effects of Napping in Sleep-Restricted Adolescents, clinicaltrials.gov, NCT02838095. The Cognitive and Metabolic Effects of Sleep Restriction in Adolescents (NFS4), clinicaltrials.gov, NCT03333512.

Mindfulness-Based Training Does Not Improve Neuropsychological Outcomes in Mild Cognitive Impairment More Than Spontaneous Reversion Rates: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Current pharmacological and behavioral treatment options for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) are limited, motivating a search for alternative therapies that might slow the progression of cognitive decline. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the effectiveness of a cognition-focused mindfulness-based intervention. METHODS: An open-label, three arm randomized controlled trial was conducted at a public tertiary medical center. Older persons (ages 45-75; N = 76) diagnosed with MCI were recruited and randomized into either mindfulness-based training (MBT), cognitive rehabilitation therapy (CRT), or treatment as usual (TAU). Participants in the intervention arms received 8 weekly 2-h sessions delivered in a group setting and engaged in home practice. Primary outcomes measures included changes in index scores for attention, immediate memory, and delayed memory as measured using the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS). Depression was a secondary outcome. RESULTS: Using intent-to-treat analysis, we found that participants receiving MBT showed significant improvements in global cognition (d = 0.26; [95%CI 0.03-0.56]) and delayed memory (d = 0.36; [95%CI 0.17-0.57]), with significantly greater improvements in delayed memory than CRT (ηp2 = 0.10). However, there was no benefit of MBT over TAU. No change in depression was observed in the MBT group. Reductions in depression were associated with improvements in cognitive functioning in the MBT group only. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that a cognition-focused MBT did not improve cognitive functioning in MCI patients substantially more than spontaneous reversion rates, possibly as mood symptoms were not significantly alleviated in this group.

Effects of Web-Based Group Mindfulness Training on Stress and Sleep Quality in Singapore During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Retrospective Equivalence Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted psychological health. Mindfulness training, which helps individuals attend to the present moment with a nonjudgmental attitude, improves sleep and reduces stress during regular times. Mindfulness training may also be relevant to the mitigation of harmful health consequences during acute crises. However, certain restrictions may necessitate the web-based delivery of mindfulness training (ie, rather than in-person group training settings). OBJECTIVE: The objective of our study was to examine the effects of mindfulness interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic and to evaluate the effectiveness of web-based interventions. METHODS: Data from an ongoing study were used for this retrospective equivalence analysis. Recruited participants were enrollees from mindfulness courses at a local charity organization that promoted mental wellness. This study had no exclusion criteria. We created three groups; two groups received their training during the COVID-19 pandemic (in-person training group: n=36; videoconferencing group: n=38), and a second control group included participants who were trained before the pandemic (n=86). Our primary outcomes were self-reported stress and sleep quality. Baseline levels and changes in these variables due to mindfulness training were compared among the groups via an analysis of covariance test and two one-tailed t tests. RESULTS: Baseline perceived stress (P=.50) and sleep quality (P=.22) did not differ significantly among the three groups. Mindfulness training significantly reduced stress in all three groups (P<.001), and this effect was statistically significant when comparing videoconferencing to in-person training (P=.002). Sleep quality improved significantly in the prepandemic training group (P<.001). However, sleep quality did not improve in the groups that received training during the pandemic. Participants reported that they required shorter times to initiate sleep following prepandemic mindfulness training (P<.001), but this was not true for those who received training during the pandemic. Course attendance was high and equivalent across the videoconferencing and comparison groups (P=.02), and participants in the videoconferencing group engaged in marginally more daily practice than the in-person training group. CONCLUSIONS: Web-based mindfulness training via videoconferencing may be a useful intervention for reducing stress during times when traditional, in-person training is not feasible. However, it may not be useful for improving sleep quality.

Dissociable influences of implicit temporal expectation on attentional performance and mind wandering.

Mind wandering at critical moments during a cognitive task degrades performance. At other moments, mind wandering could serve to conserve task-relevant resources, allowing a brief mental respite. Recent research has shown that, if target timing is predictable, mind wandering episodes coincide with moments of low target likelihood. Conversely, mind wandering can be avoided at moments when targets are expected. In the current study, we tested whether mind wandering can be guided by implicit temporal expectations when target timing is less predictable. In two experiments (Experiment 1: N = 37, Experiment 2: N = 61), participants performed a sustained attention task in which target events were preceded by a variable pre-target interval (foreperiod). As time passes over the foreperiod duration, implicit target expectation increases, given that it has not yet appeared. In Experiment 1, all foreperiod durations were equally probable (uniform distribution: 2-10 s). This resulted in faster responses when targets were preceded by long compared to short foreperiods (foreperiod-effect). In contrast, mind wandering, assessed by thought probes inserted following short or long foreperiods, did not follow this pattern. In Experiment 2, alterations in the foreperiod distribution (left or right-skewed) resulted in changes in the behavioral foreperiod-effect, but mind wandering was unaffected. Our findings indicate that implicit timing strongly affects behavioral response to target events, but has no bearing on the mind wandering. Contrastingly, mind wandering did correlate with performance deterioration due to fatigue (time-on-task), suggesting that the thought probe method was sufficiently sensitive to behaviorally relevant changes in mental state.

Pace yourself: Neural activation and connectivity changes over time vary by task type and pacing.

Performance deterioration over time, or time-on-task (TOT) effects, can be observed across a variety of tasks, but little attention has been paid to how TOT-related brain activity may differ based on task pacing and cognitive demands. Here, we employ a set of three closely related tasks to investigate the effect of these variables on fMRI activation and connectivity. When participants dictated the pace of their own responses, activation and network connectivity within the dorsal attention network (DAN) increased over short time scales (~2-3 min), a phenomenon that was not observed when participants had no control over their pace of work. Reaction time slowing was also the most pronounced in this self-paced task. In contrast, TOT-related changes in default-mode network (DMN) activity and connectivity, DAN-DMN anti-correlations, and pupil diameter did not differ based on pacing or task instructions. Over a longer (~10 min) time scale, task-positive activation and connectivity decreased in all paradigms, in agreement with older findings. These results highlight dynamic patterns of resource allocation that have not previously been observed in fMRI experiments, and speak to the idea that the brain may strategically allocate resources depending on the task at hand and the time scale of work.

Vigilance declines following sleep deprivation are associated with two previously identified dynamic connectivity states.

Robustly linking dynamic functional connectivity (DFC) states to behaviour is important for establishing the utility of the method as a functional measurement. We previously used a sliding window approach to identify two dynamic connectivity states (DCS) related to vigilance. A new sample of 32 healthy participants underwent two sets of task-free functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans, once in a well-rested state and once after a single night of total sleep deprivation. Using a temporal difference method, DFC and clustering analysis on the task-free fMRI data revealed five centroids that were highly correlated with those found in previous work. In particular, two of these states were associated with high and low arousal respectively. Individual differences in vulnerability to sleep deprivation were measured by assessing state-related changes in Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) performance. Changes in the duration spent in each of the arousal states from the well-rested to the sleep-deprived condition correlated with declines in PVT performance. The reproducibility of DFC measures and their association with vigilance highlight their utility in serving as a neuroimaging method with behavioural relevance. (178 words).

Sleep deprivation, effort allocation and performance.

Sleep deprivation causes physiological alterations (e.g., decreased arousal, intrusion of micro-sleeps), that negatively affect performance on a wide range of cognitive domains. These effects indicate that cognitive performance relies on a capacity-limited system that may be more challenged in the absence of sleep. Additionally, sleep loss can result in a lower willingness to exert effort in the pursuit of performance goals. Such deficits in motivation may interact with the effects of capacity limitations to further stifle cognitive performance. When sleep-deprived, cognitive performance is experienced as more effortful, and intrinsic motivation to perform dwindles. On the other hand, increasing motivation extrinsically (e.g., by monetary incentives) can inspire individuals to allocate more task-related effort, and can partially counter performance deficits associated with sleep deprivation. In this chapter, we review current research on the interplay between sleep deprivation, effort and performance. We integrate these findings into an effort-based decision-making framework in which sleep-related performance impairments may result from a voluntary decision to withdraw effort. We conclude with practical implications of this framework for performance in healthy populations (e.g., work productivity) and clinical conditions.

Sleep deprivation increases the costs of attentional effort: Performance, preference and pupil size.

Sleep deprivation (SD) consistently degrades performance in tasks requiring sustained attention, resulting in slower and more variable response times that worsen with time-on-task. Loss of motivation to exert effort may exacerbate performance degradation during SD. To test this, we evaluated sustained performance on a vigilance task, combining this with an effort-based decision-making task and pupillometry. Vigilance was tested at rest and after sleep deprivation, under different incentive conditions (1, 5 or 15 cents for fast responses). Subsequently, preference measures were collected from an effort-discounting task, in which a commensurate reward was offered for maintaining attentional performance for different durations (1, 5, 10, 20 or 30 min). Vigilance was impaired during SD, in a manner modulated by reward value. Preference metrics showed that the value of available rewards was discounted by task duration, an effect compounded by SD. Pupillometry revealed that arousal was modulated during SD in a value-based manner, and moment-to-moment fluctuations in pupil diameter were directly predictive of performance. Together, these data demonstrate that attentional performance can be interpreted within a value-based effort allocation framework, such that the perceived cost of attentional effort increases after sleep deprivation.

Reward motivation normalises temporal attention after sleep deprivation.

Preparation of attention facilitates speeded responding at time points with a high probability of target occurrence. Conversely, time points with low target probability are disadvantaged due to lower readiness. When targets are uniformly distributed in time, this effect results in higher readiness after longer preparation times (foreperiods). During sleep deprivation, this temporal bias is amplified, resulting in greater performance decrement when stimuli occur at unfavourable times. In this study, we examined whether reward motivation could modulate this increased temporal bias in response speed. Participants (n = 24) performed the psychomotor vigilance task under four reward conditions (0, 1, 5 or 15c per fast response), both after normal sleep (rested wakefulness) and sleep deprivation. To assess temporal preparation (foreperiod-effect), trials were binned based on the lead time prior to target presentation (short foreperiod: 1-6 s; long foreperiod: 6-10 s). As previously observed, the foreperiod-effect (slower reaction time for short foreperiod trials) increased after sleep deprivation. However, this state effect was attenuated with reward, reaching a response speed comparable to that observed in the unrewarded, well-rested condition. The current findings, therefore, suggest that reward improves overall response performance and normalises temporal attention in sleep-deprived individuals.

Towards an Objective Measure of Mindfulness: Replicating and Extending the Features of the Breath-Counting Task.

Despite calls for objective measures of mindfulness to be adopted in the field, such practices have not yet become established. Recently, a breath-counting task (BCT) was proposed as a reliable and valid candidate for such an instrument. In this study, we show that the psychometric properties of the BCT are reproducible in a sample of 127 Asian undergraduates. Specifically, accuracy on the BCT was associated with everyday lapses and sustained attention, and weakly associated with subjectively measured mindfulness. BCT metrics also showed good test-retest reliability. Extending the use of the paradigm, we further found that two different types of task errors-miscounts and resets-were correlated with different aspects of cognition. Miscounts, or errors made without awareness, were associated with attentional lapses, whereas resets, or self-caught errors, were associated with mind-wandering. The BCT may be a suitable candidate for the standardized measurement of mindfulness that could be used in addition to mindfulness questionnaires.

Motivation alters implicit temporal attention through sustained and transient mechanisms: A behavioral and pupillometric study.

Temporal expectations aid performance by allowing the optimization of attentional readiness at moment of highest target probability. Reward enhances cognitive performance through its action on preparatory and reactive attentional processes. To elucidate how motivation interacts with mechanisms of implicit temporal attention, we studied healthy young adult participants (N = 73) performing a sustained attention task with simultaneous pupillometric recording, under different reward conditions (baseline: 0 c; reward: 10 c/fast response). Target timing was temporally unpredictable (variable foreperiod: 2-10 s, uniformly distributed), in which case implicitly formed timing expectations. Trials were binned according to current foreperiod (FPn ; short: 2-6 s; long: 6-10 s) and preceding foreperiod (FPn-1 ; short: 2-6 s; long: 6-10 s). Overall, performance data showed the expected temporal attention effects, with slower responses after shorter FPn s, particularly when they followed longer FPn-1 s. Moreover, these temporal effects were significantly reduced in the reward condition. While performance improved in all trial types, the largest benefit appeared in trials that were normally most disadvantaged by invalid temporal expectation. Furthermore, reward motivation was accompanied by an increase in sustained (prestimulus) and transient (poststimulus response) pupil diameter. The latter effect was particularly evident following short FPn s. The current findings suggest that reward motivation can improve overall attentional performance and reduce implicit temporal bias, both through preparatory and reactive attentional mechanisms.