Exposure to secondhand smoke among school-going adolescents in Malaysia: Results from the National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS) 2022: Adolescent Health Survey (AHS).

INTRODUCTION: The adverse effects of secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure on health have been well established. Using the NHMS 2002: Adolescent Health Survey (AHS), this study attempts to evaluate the extent and factors associated with SHS exposure among Malaysian school-going adolescents. METHODS: We conducted the NHMS 2022: AHS to gather a representative sample of school-age teenagers. We employed a cross-sectional study design and a multi-stage sampling procedure. We utilized a pre-validated self-administered questionnaire to collect data from the selected respondents. The data analysis included adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Additionally, we investigated the possible two-way interactions between the independent variables. RESULTS: The SHS prevalence was 42.0%. Exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS) was associated with male gender (AOR=1.28; 95 CI: 1.20-1.38), older age (AOR=1.46; 95% CI: 1.33-1.60), Malay (AOR=1.88; 95% CI: 1.49-2.37), Bumiputra Sabah (AOR=2.23; 95% CI: 1.67-2.99), Bumiputra Sarawak (AOR=2.43; 95% CI: 1.80-3.28), and Chinese ethnicity (AOR=2.89; 95 CI: % 2.30-3.64), as well as current smoking (AOR=2.78; 95% CI: 2.50-3.09), having separated or divorced parents (AOR=1.12; 95% CI: 1.02-1.23), and parental tobacco product use (AOR=4.75; 95% CI: 4.44-5.08). We found significant interactions between: 1) Age group with gender and ethnicity; 2) Gender and ethnicity; and 3) Parental smoking status with gender, response to tobacco use, parents' marital status, and ethnicity. CONCLUSIONS: Parental characteristics, sociodemographic characteristics, and SHS exposure are strongly correlated. In addition, there is evidence of smoking displacement to the house from other areas by parents/guardians. This study offers a fresh perspective on how these variables influence the likelihood of SHS exposure for Malaysian school-age teenagers. More efforts should focus on parental variables and sociodemographic traits, especially parental smoking cessation support.

Validity and reliability of the Malay language Perception Towards Smoking Questionnaire (BM-PTSQ) among secondary school adolescents: Further validation using Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Perception is an essential factor influencing smoking among adolescents. Thus, a valid tool for measuring perception is a requisite in smoking studies. This study further establishes the validity and reliability of a Malay language version of the Perception Towards Smoking Questionnaire (BM-PTSQ) for assessing the perception of smoking among secondary school-going adolescents in Malaysia. METHODS: We administered the BM-PTSQ to 669 secondary school students selected through multistage sampling; 60% of respondents were male (n=398), and 69.9% (n=463) were from rural areas. Respondents were aged 13-16 years, 36.4% (n=241) were 13 years, 40.0% (n=265) were 14 years, and 23.6% (n=156) were 16 years old. We used parallel and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to determine the domains of the questionnaire. In addition, we also employed EFA, confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), and Cronbach's alpha to evaluate the construct validity and reliability of the BM-PTSQ. RESULTS: EFA and parallel analysis identified two domains in the BM-PTSQ that accounted for 62.9% of the observed variance, and CFA confirmed the two-domain structure. The two domains' internal consistency scores ranged from 0.702 to 0.80, which suggested adequate reliability. CONCLUSIONS: The BM-PTSQ has acceptable psychometric validity and is appropriate for assessing smoking perception and intention among Malaysian secondary school-aged youth. Researchers should further evaluate this tool's applicability in a more sociodemographically diverse population.

Construct validity and reliability of the Malay version of the Fagerström test for nicotine dependence (FTND): A confirmatory factor analysis.

INTRODUCTION: The Fagerström test for nicotine dependence (FTND) was forward-backwards translated into the Malay language (FTND-M) and administered to 152 daily smokers who sought treatment for smoking cessation in government health clinics in Selangor state, Malaysia. METHODS: Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), four measurement models with the best relative fit were compared, one uni-dimensional model, and three different two-domain (morning and daytime smoking) models. RESULTS: The findings indicate that the best model of the FTND-M was a two-domain model, wherein domain one represented morning smoking (time to first cigarette of the day, smoking more in the morning, and which cigarette would you hate to give up) and domain two represented daytime smoking (cigarettes per day, difficulty refraining from smoking, and smoking when ill) which showed good model fit [χ2/df=1.932, goodness of fit (GFI) of 0.967, comparative fix index (CFI) of 0.945, incremental fit index (IFI) of 0.98, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) of 0.95 and a real mean square end of approximation (RMSEA) of 0.079, and substantial reliability >0.70]. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that the FTND-M can be used to assess these two dimensions of nicotine addiction among daily smokers in a clinical setting.

Age, Period, and Cohort Analysis of Smoking Intensity Among Current Smokers in Malaysia, 1996-2015.

INTRODUCTION: Tobacco use is one of the major preventable risk factors for premature death and disability worldwide. Understanding the trend of tobacco use over time is important for informed policy making. AIMS AND METHODS: The present study aimed to examine the changes in mean daily cigarette consumption among random samples of the Malaysian current smoker population over 20 years using an age-period-cohort (APC) approach. We conducted APC analysis using a multilevel hierarchical age-period-cohort model and data from four nationally representative, repeated cross-sectional surveys (National Health and Morbidity Survey) conducted in 1996, 2006, 2011, and 2015 among individuals aged 18 to 80 years. Analyses were also stratified by gender and ethnicity. RESULTS: Overall, mean daily cigarette consumption (smoking intensity) among current smokers increased with age until 60, after which a drop was observed. There were increases in daily cigarette consumption across birth cohorts. Age and cohort trends did not vary by gender but by ethnicity. The decreasing cigarette consumption after age 60 among the current smoker population was consistent with those observed among the Chinese and Indians, a trend that was not observed in Malays and other aborigines. In contrast, the increasing cohort trend was consistent with those observed among the Malays and other bumiputras. CONCLUSIONS: The present study highlighted important ethnic-specific trends for mean daily cigarette consumption among the current smoker population in Malaysia. These findings are essential in guiding the formulation of interventional strategies or implementation of national tobacco control policies and help achieve the Ministry of Health Malaysia's 2025 and 2045 targets for smoking prevalence. IMPLICATIONS: This is the first APC study on smoking intensity among current smokers in a multiracial, middle-income nation. Very few studies had performed gender- and ethnic-stratified APC analyses. The ethnic-stratified APC analyses provide useful insights into the overall age and cohort trends observed among the current smoker population in Malaysia. Therefore, the present study could add evidence to the existing literature on the APC trends of smoking intensity. The APC trends are also important in guiding the government to develop, implement, and evaluate antismoking strategies.

Lifestyles and Sexual Behaviour Among School-Going Adolescents: A Mediational Role of Mental Health.

Sexual behaviour and mental health among adolescents are major public health issues. This study examines how lifestyles affect sexual behaviour among school-going adolescents in Malaysia, and the potential mediational role of mental health. It is the first to our knowledge to explore the mediating effect of mental health on sexual behaviour with a focus on a fast-growing developing country. Data were obtained from the National Health and Morbidity Survey 2017 (n = 27,497). Structural equation modelling was utilized to examine depression and anxiety as mediators of the relationships between sexual behaviour and smoking, alcohol drinking and illicit drug use, controlling for sociodemographic factors. Results showed that adolescents who smoked, consumed alcohol, used illicit drugs, and had depression and anxiety were more likely to engage in sexual behaviour than others. Depression and anxiety partially mediated the relationships between sexual behaviour and smoking, and illicit drug use. The association between alcohol drinking and sexual behaviour was fully mediated by depression and anxiety. In conclusion, lifestyles may affect sexual behaviour through mediation of mental health. Therefore, policymakers should take mental health factors into consideration when designing adolescent sexual behaviour preventative interventions.

Agreement between the Fagerström test for nicotine dependence (FTND) and the heaviness of smoking index (HSI) for assessing the intensity of nicotine dependence among daily smokers.

INTRODUCTION: Measuring the level of nicotine addiction among smokers is an integral part of enhancing smoking cessation as nicotine dependence is one of the barriers to smoking cessation. In this study, we compared the level of agreement between FTND and HSI in detecting high nicotine dependence among daily smokers. METHODS: We collected data from participants of a public smoking cessation clinic in Selangor. A trained pharmacist conducted face-to-face interviews with 152 daily smokers using a structured validated questionnaire. Respondents were classified as having high nicotine dependence using both the HSI (score ≥4) and the FTND (score ≥6), and concordance between the two measures, kappa statistics and sensitivity, specificity of the HSI were then determined with the FTND classification as the reference standard. RESULTS: The HSI had a substantial agreement with the FTND (Cohen's kappa=0.72) in measuring high levels of nicotine addiction, with good sensitivity (83.3%) and specificity (89.4%). CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that the HSI can be used instead of the FTND in clinical-based investigations to screen for high nicotine dependence among daily smokers in the clinical setting.

Validation of the Malay Version of the Decisional Balance Inventory (MDBI) among secondary school-going adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: The Decisional Balance Inventory is a tool used to measure propensity to maintain or change a habit which takes into consideration the perceived advantages and disadvantages. This study aimed to establish the validity and reliability of a Malay language version of the DBI for assessing inclination for change in smoking behavior among secondary school-going adolescents in Malaysia. METHODS: We administered the MDBI to 669 secondary school students selected through multistage sampling. The sample consisted of 60.1% male (n=398) and 39.9% (n=264) female students, more than two-thirds (69.9%, n=463) of which were from rural areas. The majority of the respondents were aged 13-14 years [13 years, 36.4% (n=241), 14 years, 40.0% (n=265), 16 years, 23.6% (n=156)]. The construct validity of the MDBI was assessed using explanatory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and the reliability of the MDBI via Cronbach's alpha. RESULTS: EFA and parallel analysis extracted three factors in the MDBI that accounted for 65.4% of the observed variance, and this was supported by CFA. Internal consistency of the three factors ranged from 0.734 to 0.867, indicating acceptable reliability. CONCLUSIONS: The MDBI has good psychometric properties and is suitable for measuring smoking intention among Malaysian secondary school-going adolescents. However, it should continue to be tested to expand its usefulness and applicability among adolescents in other sociodemographic settings.

The pattern in prevalence and sociodemographic factors of smoking in Malaysia, 2011-2019: Findings from national surveys.

INTRODUCTION: Smoking is a major contributor to morbidity and mortality worldwide, with Malaysia no exception. Through the Ministry of Health and other ministries in the government of Malaysia, numerous anti-smoking measures have been introduced to prevent and control smoking in the country. Continuous monitoring of smoking prevalence in the community is essential in order to evaluate the effectiveness of anti-smoking policies. This study aims to update the sociodemographic factors associated with smoking in the past decade in Malaysia. METHODS: The study utilized data from three national household surveys in Malaysia, namely the Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) 2011, the National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS) 2015 and the National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS) 2019. These surveys adopted a multistage stratified sampling design that represents the population in Malaysia. Smoking status was determined based on the GATS protocol and definitions. Complex sample design estimates and complex multivariable logistic regression were used in the analysis. RESULTS: A total of 4250, 21410 and 11111 respondents aged ≥15 years participated in GATS 2011, NHMS 2015 and NHMS 2019, respectively, with a response rate between 85% and 87%. The prevalence of smoking was 23.1% (95% CI: 21.2-25.2) in 2011, 22.8% (95% CI: 21.9-23.8) in 2015 and 21.3% (95% CI: 19.9-22.8) in 2019. The prevalence was consistently higher in males (40.5-43.9%), adults aged 25-44 years (25.4-29.0%), Malay (22.6-24.7%), other ethnicities (30.0-35.0%), and the self-employed (33.7-44.6%). Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) of smoking was higher in males, in younger and middle age groups, Malays, and those with lower education level. CONCLUSIONS: There were slight changes in the sociodemographic factors of smoking in the past decade in Malaysia. Stern measures and more aggressive strategies are needed to address all the risk factors in controlling smoking behavior in the country.

Awareness of body mass index and its associated factors: A cross-sectional study.

This study explores the correlates of sociodemographic factors, smoking, and caloric knowledge to body mass index awareness with a focus on Malaysia. Logistic regressions were estimated to examine sociodemographic factors associated with body mass index awareness. More than half of respondents were unaware of their body mass index (54.8%). Age was negatively associated with body mass index awareness. Adults without formal education were less likely to know their body mass index than those with tertiary-level education. Adults were less likely to be aware of their body mass index if they engaged in smoking. Adults with knowledge of the definition of calories were more aware of their body mass index than others. The findings emphasize the urgent need for a forthcoming sociodemographic factors-specific policy directed toward improving body mass index awareness to lower the prevalence of obesity in Malaysia.

Correlates of dual/poly tobacco use among school-going adolescents in Malaysia: Findings from a nationwide school-based study.

INTRODUCTION: Dual/poly tobacco use is common among youths globally. However, in Malaysia information on dual/poly tobacco use is scarce, thus the present study examines the prevalence and factors associated with dual/poly tobacco users among school-going adolescents in Malaysia. METHODS: We derived data on tobacco and e-cigarette use among Malaysian adolescents from a nationwide school-based study conducted in 2016. A total of 13135 adolescents responded in the cross-sectional survey which used multi-stage sampling to select a representative sample of school-going adolescents aged 11-19 years. A standard validated questionnaire was used to obtain the data and multiple logistic regression was conducted to assess factors associated with dual/ poly tobacco use. RESULTS: The prevalence of dual/poly tobacco use was 6.5%, more than half of which were both conventional and e-cigarette users. Multivariable logistic regression revealed that the likelihood of dual tobacco use was significantly higher among males (AOR=14.73; 95% CI: 9.11-23.81), secondary school students, those aged 16-19 years (AOR=5.99; 95% CI: 4.04-8.87), natives of Sabah (AOR=7.41; 95% CI: 3.48-15.79), and those never been taught on the health hazards of tobacco at school, exposed to secondhand smoke (SHS) at home, school or other public areas, and had a positive perception of e-cigarettes and lower perception of the harms of tobacco smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Although the prevalence of dual/poly users was still low among Malaysian school-going adolescents, proactive measures should be taken to reduce dual tobacco use among youth in Malaysia with focus on the factors identified in this study.

Assessment of association between smoking and all-cause mortality among Malaysian adult population: Findings from a retrospective cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: Smoking is a known risk factor for many chronic diseases. Illness and death due to smoking are a significant public health burden in many countries. This study aims to address the information gap in smoking-related mortality in Malaysia by estimating the risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortalities due to smoking among Malaysian adults. METHODS: We analyzed data on 2525 respondents, aged 24-64 years, of the Malaysian Non-Communicable Disease Surveillance survey conducted September 2005 to February 2006. Mortality records from the Malaysian National Registration Department were linked to the MYNCDS-1 data to determine respondents' mortality status over 12 years from 2006 to 2018. Associations between smoking and all-cause mortalities were assessed using Cox proportional hazards regression with adjustments for non-communicable disease and sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. RESULTS: The prevalence of daily smoking was 21.2% (95% CI: 19.0-23.7). During the 31668 person-years follow-up, 213 deaths from all causes occurred, where 68 deaths were among smokers (13.2%), and 452 were among non-smokers (6.3%). Smoking was associated with a significantly increased risk of all-cause mortality (adjusted hazard ration, AHR=1.79; 95% CI: 1.12- 2.97). These associations remained significant after excluding mortalities in the first two years of follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Daily smoking is associated with a significantly higher risk of all-cause death. Behavioral and pharmacological smoking cessation interventions should be intensified among smokers to reduce the risk of mortality.

Assessing the Spatiotemporal Spread Pattern of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Malaysia.

Introduction: The unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic has greatly affected human health and socioeconomic backgrounds. This study examined the spatiotemporal spread pattern of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia from the index case to 291,774 cases in 13 months, emphasizing on the spatial autocorrelation of the high-risk cluster events and the spatial scan clustering pattern of transmission. Methodology: We obtained the confirmed cases and deaths of COVID-19 in Malaysia from the official GitHub repository of Malaysia's Ministry of Health from January 25, 2020 to February 24, 2021, 1 day before the national vaccination program was initiated. All analyses were based on the daily cumulated cases, which are derived from the sum of retrospective 7 days and the current day for smoothing purposes. We examined the daily global, local spatial autocorrelation and scan statistics of COVID-19 cases at district level using Moran's I and SaTScan™. Results: At the initial stage of the outbreak, Moran's I index > 0.5 (p < 0.05) was observed. Local Moran's I depicted the high-high cluster risk expanded from west to east of Malaysia. The cases surged exponentially after September 2020, with the high-high cluster in Sabah, from Kinabatangan on September 1 (cumulative cases = 9,354; Moran's I = 0.34; p < 0.05), to 11 districts on October 19 (cumulative cases = 21,363, Moran's I = 0.52, p < 0.05). The most likely cluster identified from space-time scanning was centered in Jasin, Melaka (RR = 11.93; p < 0.001) which encompassed 36 districts with a radius of 178.8 km, from November 24, 2020 to February 24, 2021, followed by the Sabah cluster. Discussion and Conclusion: Both analyses complemented each other in depicting underlying spatiotemporal clustering risk, giving detailed space-time spread information at district level. This daily analysis could be valuable insight into real-time reporting of transmission intensity, and alert for the public to avoid visiting the high-risk areas during the pandemic. The spatiotemporal transmission risk pattern could be used to monitor the spread of the pandemic.

The Role of Media and Retailer Message Recall on Malaysian Male Perceptions of E-Cigarette Use: The 2016 National Study of E-Cigarettes Prevalence.

This study examined the perceptions of current smokers on electronic cigarette (EC) use, after exposure to information on EC use and its potential harms from various media and retail outlets. This cross-sectional study is a sub-analysis of the National Study of Electronic Cigarettes Prevalence (N = 4289) using the multi-stage stratified sampling method. Respondents were interviewed face-to-face by a trained data collector using a structured questionnaire printed in both Bahasa Malaysia and English. The analysis included 376 males who smoked conventional cigarettes and/or used ECs and reported ever seeing messages on ECs/vape in various platforms were analyzed using weighted simple and multiple logistic regression. Our findings showed different media types resulted in differing perceptions among smokers towards EC use especially between social media and conventional media. Those exposed to messages promoting EC in social media had higher odds of believing that ECs help people quit smoking (OR: 2.28), the urge to smoke is reduced by ECs (OR: 1.86), ECs are more effective than medication for quitting smoking (OR: 1.96), breathing is improved after using ECs (OR: 2.85), the smell of EC is better than a tobacco cigarette (OR: 2.73), and ECs should be regulated rather than banned completely (OR: 3.08). Vape shops, social, and conventional media provided very different perceptions among smokers towards EC use. Beyond using traditional communication channels, EC promoters have successfully utilized social media to promote ECs among smokers.

Sociodemographic correlates of knowledge about high sodium-related diseases among adults in Malaysia.

The prevalence of high sodium-related diseases is increasing across the globe. Knowledge plays an important role in disease prevention. The objective of the present study was to examine sociodemographic factors associated with knowledge of high sodium-related diseases. The Malaysian Community Salt Survey (MyCoSS) was used in the present study for secondary analyses. It is a nationwide cross-sectional survey that was conducted in Malaysia. A non-parametric test to evaluate trends and a negative binomial regression were utilised to assess knowledge of high sodium-related diseases. Income, educational level, gender, ethnicity, house locality and hypertension were found to be significantly associated with knowledge of high sodium-related diseases. In particular, higher income earners, well-educated people, women, Malays, urban dwellers and hypertensive adults were more likely to have acquired a lot of knowledge of high sodium-related diseases compared to that acquired by lower income earners, less-educated people, men, individuals of other ethnic groups, rural dwellers and nonhypertensive adults. In conclusion, sociodemographic factors and hypertension play an important role in knowledge acquired about high sodium-related diseases. The findings of the present study could inform a future policy directed towards increasing knowledge about high sodium-related diseases among the population in Malaysia.

Current e-cigarette use among in-school adolescents in West Malaysia: Examining the interactions between sociodemographic characteristics and lifestyle risk behaviours.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent e-cigarette use has increased dramatically. Most e-cigarette liquids contain nicotine, which can harm the developing adolescent brain. Local studies examining the risk factors of adolescent e-cigarette use and interactions between its risk factors are limited. This study was aimed at determining the prevalence of current e-cigarette use and its associated factors among in-school adolescents in West Malaysia. We also examined the possible sociodemographic characteristic, lifestyle risk behaviour and parental factor interactions that affect the probability of current e-cigarette use. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study using data from the National Health and Morbidity Survey 2017. Respondents aged 13-18 years were included in the study. The data were analysed using STATA (v.15). RESULTS: The prevalence of current e-cigarette use was 9.1%. Male gender, older age, Malay ethnicity, schooling in urban area, current smoking, current alcohol use, current drug use, having parents that are not married and living together and parental tobacco product use were significantly associated with current e-cigarette use. There were significant interactions between: i) gender with age, ethnicity, current smoking, current alcohol use and current drug use, ii) ethnicity with current smoking and current alcohol use, iii) locality with ethnicity, current smoking and current alcohol use, iv) current drug use with age, ethnicity, current smoking and current alcohol use, v) parental marital status with gender, age and ethnicity, and vi) parental tobacco use with ethnicity and current smoking. CONCLUSION: Our findings identify significant associations between sociodemographic characteristics, lifestyle risk behaviours and parental factors with current e-cigarette use. They also provide new insight into the interactions between these factors that affect the probability of current e-cigarette use among West Malaysian adolescents. Efforts to tackle e-cigarette use in Malaysian adolescents should target sociodemographic characteristics, lifestyle risk behaviours and parental factors such as smoking cessation intervention for parents.

Susceptibility to e-cigarette initiation among tobacco product naïve adolescents in Malaysia: Findings from the tobacco and e-cigarette survey among Malaysian adolescents (TECMA).

INTRODUCTION: Predicting susceptibility to e-cigarette (EC) initiation among adolescents is crucial to optimize preventive measures before the health risk behavior persists through adulthood. The identification of susceptible groups is needed in response to the surge of EC use. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and determinants associated with EC susceptibility among tobacco product naïve (never users of any single tobacco product) school-going adolescents in Malaysia. METHODS: Data were derived from the Tobacco and EC Survey among Malaysians (TECMA), which recruited a total of 13162 school-going adolescents aged 10- 19 years from 138 randomly selected schools via a two-stage stratified cluster sampling design. A validated self-administered questionnaire adapted from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey was utilized as the study instrument. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 22.0 descriptively and with multivariable logistic regression to determine the associated factors of EC susceptibility. RESULTS: About 15.7% of the tobacco naïve adolescents were susceptible to EC initiation, with the proportion of susceptibility significantly higher among males, mid-adolescents, rural adolescents, those reporting exposure to tobacco advertisement and those not taught in school about the danger of tobacco use. Multivariable logistic regression revealed that the male students (AOR=2.20; 95% CI: 1.86-2.59) from a rural locality (AOR=1.45; 95% CI: 1.23-1.71), those reporting no lessons on the danger of tobacco use at school (AOR=1.66; 95% CI: 1.39-1.99) and those exposed to tobacco advertisement (AOR=1.67; 95% CI: 1.07-2.61), were more susceptible to EC initiation, while no significant association was found between secondhand smoke exposure and EC susceptibility. CONCLUSIONS: Comprehensive EC preventive strategies are critically needed together with the implementation of targeted, gender, and culturally impressionable interventions. In addition, future studies should focus on the evaluation of the impacts of the preventive and control efforts to ensure their effectiveness in preventing EC initiation among Malaysian adolescents.

Mental health and risk behaviors among secondary school students: A study on ethnic minorities.

BACKGROUND: Mental health disorders are highly correlated with risk behaviors. The objective of the present study is to examine the relationship between risk behaviors and mental health among school-going students with a focus on ethnic minorities. METHODS: The National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS) 2017 (n = 8230) was used for analyses. It was a nationwide survey conducted in Malaysia. The dependent variables were measured by three risk behaviors (cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking and use of illicit drugs). Probit regressions were utilized to examine the effect of mental health on the probability of smoking, drinking and using illicit drugs. Demographic and lifestyle factors were used as the control variables. Truancy was identified as a mediating variable. RESULTS: Anxiety, depression and suicidal ideation affected cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking and use of illicit drugs through mediation of truancy. After controlling for demographic and lifestyle factors, students with anxiety, depression and suicidal ideation were more likely to smoke, drink and use illicit drugs compared with their peers without any mental health disorders. Furthermore, the likelihood of consuming cigarettes, alcohol and illicit drugs was found to be higher among students who played truant than those who did not. CONCLUSION: Mental health plays an important role in determining participation in risk behaviors among ethnic minority students in Malaysia. Public health administrators and schools have to be aware that students who suffer from mental health disorders are likely to indulge in risk behaviors.

Association of metabolic syndrome with risk of cardiovascular disease mortality and all-cause mortality among Malaysian adults: a retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: This study is aimed at determining the association between metabolic syndrome and risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality and all-cause mortality among Malaysian adults. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: The Malaysian Non-Communicable Disease Surveillance (MyNCDS-1) 2005/2006. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 2525 adults (1013 men and 1512 women), aged 24-64 years, who participated in the MyNCDS-1 2005/2006. METHODS: Participants' anthropometric indices, blood pressure, fasting lipid profile and fasting blood glucose levels were evaluated to determine the prevalence of metabolic syndrome by the Harmonized criteria. Participants' mortality status were followed up for 13 years from 2006 to 2018. Mortality data were obtained via record linkage with the Malaysian National Registration Department. The Cox proportional hazards regression model was applied to determine association between metabolic syndrome (MetS) and risk of CVD mortality and all-cause mortality with adjustment for selected sociodemographic and lifestyle behavioural factors. RESULTS: The overall point prevalence of MetS was 30.6% (95% CI: 28.0 to 33.3). Total follow-up time was 31 668 person-years with 213 deaths (111 (11.3%) in MetS subjects and 102 (6.1%) in non-MetS subjects) from all-causes, and 50 deaths (33 (2.9%) in MetS group and 17 (1.2%) in non-MetS group) from CVD. Metabolic syndrome was associated with a significantly increased hazard of CVD mortality (adjusted HR: 2.18 (95% CI: 1.03 to 4.61), p=0.041) and all-cause mortality (adjusted HR: 1.47 (95% CI: 1.00 to 2.14), p=0.048). These associations remained significant after excluding mortalities in the first 2 years. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that individuals with MetS have a higher hazard of death from all-causes and CVD compared with those without MetS. It is thus imperative to prescribe individuals with MetS, a lifestyle intervention along with pharmacological intervention to improve the individual components of MetS and reduce this risk.

Prevalence and factors related to secondhand smoke exposure among secondary school-going adolescents in Malaysia: Findings from Malaysia Global Health School Survey 2012 and 2017.

INTRODUCTION: Secondhand (SHS) smoke exposure has caused various health problems. Therefore, continuous monitoring of SHS exposure is important to determine the efficacy of various anti-tobacco measure implemented. The study aims to compare the prevalence and factor(s) associated with SHS exposure among secondary school-going adolescents in Malaysia during 2012 and 2017. METHODS: We derived data from the Global School Health Survey (GSHS) 2012 and GSHS 2017, which was carried out in Malaysia using multistage sampling to select representative samples of secondary school-going adolescents. Both surveys used similar questionnaires to measure SHS exposure. Descriptive and multivariate logistic regression was used to determine the prevalence and factors associated with SHS exposure. RESULTS: Approximately four in ten respondents were exposed to SHS in the past week in both surveys (41.5% in GSHS 2012 and 42.0% in GSHS 2017, respectively). Both surveys revealed a significantly higher SHS exposure among respondents who smoked than among non-smokers and higher among males compared to females. The likelihood of SHS exposure in both surveys was also similar, with a higher likelihood of SHS exposure among smoking adolescents and non-smoking adolescents who had at least one smoking parent/guardian, regardless of their own smoking status. Male adolescents had a higher risk of SHS exposure compared to their female counterparts. Meanwhile, SHS risk also increased with age, regardless of smoking status. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggested that there were no changes in the prevalence of SHS exposure and recorded only a slight change in the factors associated with exposure to SHS among school-going adolescents in Malaysia between the years 2012 and 2017. A more pro-active, extensive and comprehensive programme should be implemented to address the problem of SHS exposure. Parents should be advised to stop smoking or abstain from smoking in the presence of their children, and smoking cessation interventions are necessary for smoking adolescents and their parents.

Prevalence and Factors Associated With Attempts to Quit and Smoking Cessation in Malaysia.

Smoking cessation significantly reduces risk of smoking-related diseases and mortality. This study aims to determine the prevalence and factors associated with attempts to quit and smoking cessation among adult current smokers in Malaysia. Data from the National E-Cigarette Survey 2016 were analyzed. Forty nine percent of current smokers had attempted to quit at least once in the past 12 months and 31.4% of the respondents were former smokers. Multivariable analysis revealed that current smokers with low nicotine addiction and aged below 45 years were more likely to attempt to quit smoking. Being married, older age group, and having tertiary education were significantly associated with smoking cessation. Only half of the current smokers ever attempted to quit smoking and only a third of smokers quit. Stronger tobacco control policies are needed in Malaysia to encourage more smokers to quit smoking. Improved access to cessation support for underprivileged smokers is also needed.