Analyzing vegetation health dynamics across seasons and regions through NDVI and climatic variables.

This study assesses the relationships between vegetation dynamics and climatic variations in Pakistan from 2000 to 2023. Employing high-resolution Landsat data for Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) assessments, integrated with climate variables from CHIRPS and ERA5 datasets, our approach leverages Google Earth Engine (GEE) for efficient processing. It combines statistical methodologies, including linear regression, Mann-Kendall trend tests, Sen's slope estimator, partial correlation, and cross wavelet transform analyses. The findings highlight significant spatial and temporal variations in NDVI, with an annual increase averaging 0.00197 per year (p < 0.0001). This positive trend is coupled with an increase in precipitation by 0.4801 mm/year (p = 0.0016). In contrast, our analysis recorded a slight decrease in temperature (- 0.01011 °C/year, p < 0.05) and a reduction in solar radiation (- 0.27526 W/m2/year, p < 0.05). Notably, cross-wavelet transform analysis underscored significant coherence between NDVI and climatic factors, revealing periods of synchronized fluctuations and distinct lagged relationships. This analysis particularly highlighted precipitation as a primary driver of vegetation growth, illustrating its crucial impact across various Pakistani regions. Moreover, the analysis revealed distinct seasonal patterns, indicating that vegetation health is most responsive during the monsoon season, correlating strongly with peaks in seasonal precipitation. Our investigation has revealed Pakistan's complex association between vegetation health and climatic factors, which varies across different regions. Through cross-wavelet analysis, we have identified distinct coherence and phase relationships that highlight the critical influence of climatic drivers on vegetation patterns. These insights are crucial for developing regional climate adaptation strategies and informing sustainable agricultural and environmental management practices in the face of ongoing climatic changes.

Exploring carbon sequestration in broad-leaved Korean pine forests: Insights into photosynthetic and respiratory processes.

A comprehensive understanding of carbon assimilation and sequestration in broad-leaved Korean pine forests is crucial for accurately estimating this significant aspect of temperate forests at a regional scale. In this study, we introduced a high-temporal resolution model designed for carbon assimilation insights at the plot scale, focusing on specific parameters such as leaf area dynamics, vertical leaf distribution, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) fluctuations, and the photosynthetic traits of tree species. The findings reveal that most tree species in broad-leaved Korean pine forests exhibit an inverted U-shaped pattern in leaf area dynamics, with shorter leaf drop periods than leaf expansion events. Leaf distribution varies significantly among different canopy heights, with approximately 80 % of the leaves above 15 m. PAR decreases as canopy height decreases, with PAR at 25 m accounting for about 60 % of the PAR above the canopy. Our framework incorporates a leaf-scale light-response curve and empirical photosynthesis-temperature relationships to estimate forest carbon assimilation on daily and hourly scales accurately. Using the model, we assess the gross primary productivity (GPP), leaf net photosynthetic assimilation (LNPA), and carbon increment (ΔC) of broad-leaved Korean pine forests from 2017 to 2020. The results demonstrate GPP, LNPA, and ΔC values of 21.4 t·ha-1·a-1, 17.4 t·ha-1·a-1, and 4.0 t·ha-1·a-1, respectively. Regarding efficiency, GPP, LNPA, and ΔC per square meter of leaf per year are 179 g, 146 g, and 33 g, respectively. Notably, tree species in the canopy layer of the forest exhibit significantly higher efficiency than those in the understory layer. This research significantly contributes to our understanding of carbon cycling and the responses of forest ecosystems to climate change. Moreover, it provides a practical tool for forest management and the development of carbon sequestration strategies.

Engineering extracellular electron transfer pathways of electroactive microorganisms by synthetic biology for energy and chemicals production.

The excessive consumption of fossil fuels causes massive emission of CO2, leading to climate deterioration and environmental pollution. The development of substitutes and sustainable energy sources to replace fossil fuels has become a worldwide priority. Bio-electrochemical systems (BESs), employing redox reactions of electroactive microorganisms (EAMs) on electrodes to achieve a meritorious combination of biocatalysis and electrocatalysis, provide a green and sustainable alternative approach for bioremediation, CO2 fixation, and energy and chemicals production. EAMs, including exoelectrogens and electrotrophs, perform extracellular electron transfer (EET) (i.e., outward and inward EET), respectively, to exchange energy with the environment, whose rate determines the efficiency and performance of BESs. Therefore, we review the synthetic biology strategies developed in the last decade for engineering EAMs to enhance the EET rate in cell-electrode interfaces for facilitating the production of electricity energy and value-added chemicals, which include (1) progress in genetic manipulation and editing tools to achieve the efficient regulation of gene expression, knockout, and knockdown of EAMs; (2) synthetic biological engineering strategies to enhance the outward EET of exoelectrogens to anodes for electricity power production and anodic electro-fermentation (AEF) for chemicals production, including (i) broadening and strengthening substrate utilization, (ii) increasing the intracellular releasable reducing equivalents, (iii) optimizing c-type cytochrome (c-Cyts) expression and maturation, (iv) enhancing conductive nanowire biosynthesis and modification, (v) promoting electron shuttle biosynthesis, secretion, and immobilization, (vi) engineering global regulators to promote EET rate, (vii) facilitating biofilm formation, and (viii) constructing cell-material hybrids; (3) the mechanisms of inward EET, CO2 fixation pathway, and engineering strategies for improving the inward EET of electrotrophic cells for CO2 reduction and chemical production, including (i) programming metabolic pathways of electrotrophs, (ii) rewiring bioelectrical circuits for enhancing inward EET, and (iii) constructing microbial (photo)electrosynthesis by cell-material hybridization; (4) perspectives on future challenges and opportunities for engineering EET to develop highly efficient BESs for sustainable energy and chemical production. We expect that this review will provide a theoretical basis for the future development of BESs in energy harvesting, CO2 fixation, and chemical synthesis.

Engineering extracellular polymer substrates biosynthesis and carbon felt-carbon nanotube hybrid electrode to promote biofilm electroactivity and bioelectricity production.

Organic-rich thin stillage is a significant by-product of the liquor brewing industry, and its direct release into the environment can cause severe water pollution. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) offer the possibility for converting organic matters in thin stillage into clean electricity. However, limited biofilm formation and conductivity are crucial bottlenecks in restricting the power harvest of MFCs. Here, to efficiently harvest electricity power from thin stillage of liquor industry, we adopted a modular engineering strategy to increase biofilm formation and conductivity of Shewanella oneidensis via enhancing the component biosynthesis of extracellular polymer substrates (EPS) matrix, regulating intracellular c-di-GMP level, and constructing of artificial hybrid system. The results showed that the constructed CNTs@CF-EnBF2 hybrid system with low charge-transfer resistance enabled a maximum output power density of 576.77 mW/m2 in lactate-fed MFCs. Also, to evaluate the capability of harvesting electricity from actual wastewater, the CNTs@CF-EnBF2 system was employed to treat actual thin stillage, obtaining a maximum output power density of 495.86 mW/m2, 3.3-fold higher than the wild-type strain. Our research suggested that engineering and regulating EPS biosynthesis effectively promoted bioelectricity harvest, providing a green and sustainable treatment strategy for thin stillage.

Systematic Full-Cycle Engineering Microbial Biofilms to Boost Electricity Production in Shewanella oneidensis.

Electroactive biofilm plays a crucial rule in the electron transfer efficiency of microbial electrochemical systems (MES). However, the low ability to form biofilm and the low conductivity of the formed biofilm substantially limit the extracellular electron transfer rate of microbial cells to the electrode surfaces in MES. To promote biofilm formation and enhance biofilm conductivity, we develop synthetic biology approach to systematically engineer Shewanella oneidensis, a model exoelectrogen, via modular manipulation of the full-cycle different stages of biofilm formation, namely, from initial contact, cell adhesion, and biofilm growth stable maturity to cell dispersion. Consequently, the maximum output power density of the engineered biofilm reaches 3.62 ± 0.06 W m-2, 39.3-fold higher than that of the wild-type strain of S. oneidensis, which, to the best our knowledge, is the highest output power density that has ever been reported for the biofilms of the genetically engineered Shewanella strains.

Modular Engineering Strategy to Redirect Electron Flux into the Electron-Transfer Chain for Enhancing Extracellular Electron Transfer in Shewanella oneidensis.

Efficient extracellular electron transfer (EET) of exoelectrogens is critical for practical applications of various bioelectrochemical systems. However, the low efficiency of electron transfer remains a major bottleneck. In this study, a modular engineering strategy, including broadening the sources of the intracellular electron pool, enhancing intracellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) regeneration, and promoting electron release from electron pools, was developed to redirect electron flux into the electron transfer chain in Shewanella oneidensis MR-1. Among them, four genes include gene SO1522 encoding a lactate transporter for broadening the sources of the intracellular electron pool, gene gapA encoding a glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and gene mdh encoding a malate dehydrogenase in the central carbon metabolism for enhancing intracellular NADH regeneration, and gene ndh encoding NADH dehydrogenase on the inner membrane for releasing electrons from intracellular electron pools into the electron-transport chain. Upon assembly of the four genes, electron flux was directly redirected from the electron donor to the electron-transfer chain, achieving 62% increase in intracellular NADH levels, which resulted in a 3.5-fold enhancement in the power density from 59.5 ± 3.2 mW/m2 (wild type) to 270.0 ± 12.7 mW/m2 (recombinant strain). This study confirmed that redirecting electron flux from the electron donor to the electron-transfer chain is a viable approach to enhance the EET rate of S. oneidensis.

[Seasonal dynamics of energy and nutrients of Pinus koraiensis seedlings in different successional stages of broadleaved Korean pine forest in Changbai Mountain, China.] / é•¿ç™½å±±é˜”å¶çº¢æ¾æž—ä¸åŒæ¼”æ›¿é˜¶æ®µæž—ä¸‹çº¢æ¾å¹¼è‹—èƒ½é‡ä¸Žå »åˆ†å­£èŠ‚åŠ¨æ€.

We examined the seasonal variations of growth and nutrient accumulation of two-year-old Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) seedlings in the primary broadleaved Korean pine forest (primary forest) and poplar birch forest (secondary forest) in Changbai Mountain. The seasonal changes of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), seedling biomass, nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC), total nitrogen (N), and total phosphorus (P) were measured in both forests. The effects of understory light and its seasonal variations in both forests on the growth and nutrient accumulation of understory Korean pine seedlings were also explored. The results showed that the seasonal variations of monthly cumulative PAR under both forests showed a double-peak pattern. In summer, light conditions under the two forests were poor because of the closed canopy. In spring and autumn, light conditions were better due to the deciduous characteristics of canopy broadleaved trees, with light conditions under the secondary forest being obviously better than that of the primary forest. The seasonal variations of biomass, NSC, total N and total P concentrations of Korean pine seedlings in the primary and secondary forests were basically consistent with that of understory light. All those variables increased significantly in spring and autumn, and decreased in summer. In spring, starch concentration increased. In summer, starch and soluble sugar concentrations decreased gradually, and touched bottom in August. In autumn, soluble sugar concentration increased significantly. The biomass and NSC concentration of seedlings under secondary forest were significantly higher than those under primary forest in spring and autumn, but without difference in summer. Therefore, the diffe-rence of understory light conditions in spring and autumn between the two forests might be the key factor driving nutrient accumulation, growth and regeneration of Korean pine seedlings.

[Response of radial growth of Pinus sylvestriformis and Picea jezoensis to climate warming in the ecotone of Changbai Mountain, Northeast China]. / 长白山群落交错带长白松和鱼鳞云杉径向生长对气候变暖的响应.

Changbai Mountain is a typical distribution area of temperate coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests, with significant influence of global climate change. In order to understand the responses of forest ecosystem to climate change, we examined the responses of dominant arbor species in the community ecotone of broad-leaved Korean pine forest and spruce-fir forest (also known as dark coniferous forest), Pinus sylvestriformis and Picea jezoensis. The standard chronologies were established by obtaining tree ring width data in order to identity the key climatic factors that confine the radial growth of both species. The responses of P. sylvestriformis and P. jezoensis to climate factors were different.P. sylvestriformis was more sensitive than P. jezoensis, indicating that P. sylvestriformis was more suitable for dendroclimatological analysis. The radial growth of P. sylvestriformis was consistent with the increases of mean temperature, while the radial growth of P. jezoensis showed a "divergence problem" which decreased with the increases of mean temperature. The radial growth of P. sylvestriformis was mainly limited by temperature, especially the mean temperature in last July and August and current September. However, there was a negative correlation between standard chronologies of P. jezoensis and mean temperature in most months, which was limited by both temperature and precipitation. The correlation between radial growth of both species and climate factors after sudden temperature rise, was weaker than that before sudden temperature rise. The correlation between radial growth and climate factors changed from positive to negative in some months. Current temperature rise might not exceed the critical threshold of the radial growth of P. sylvestriformis, which could promote the radial growth. In addition, the wavelet analysis showed that the radial growth of trees in this area might be affected by large-scale coupling effects of atmospheric-ocean-land changes. In conclusion, climate warming was beneficial to the radial growth of P. sylvestriformis, while drought stress caused by warming was the main factor limiting the radial growth of P. jezoensis. If the global temperature continues to increase in the future, it will have an adverse impact on P. jezoensis. The results would help improve our understanding of the responses of radial growth of P. sylvestriformis and P. jezoensis to future climate change, and provide some basic data for climate reconstruction using both species.

Tailoring bacterial cellulose structure through CRISPR interference-mediated downregulation of galU in Komagataeibacter xylinus CGMCC 2955.

Diverse applications of bacterial cellulose (BC) have different requirements in terms of its structural characteristics. culturing Komagataeibacter xylinus CGMCC 2955, BC structure changes with alterations in oxygen tension. Here, the K. xylinus CGMCC 2955 transcriptome was analyzed under different oxygen tensions. Transcriptome and genome analysis indicated that BC structure is related to the rate of BC synthesis and cell growth, and galU is an essential gene that controls the carbon metabolic flux between the BC synthesis pathway and the pentose phosphate (PP) pathway. The CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) system was utilized in K. xylinus CGMCC 2955 to control the expression levels of galU. By overexpressing galU and interfering with different sites of galU sequences using CRISPRi, we obtained strains with varying expression levels of galU (3.20-3014.84%). By testing the characteristics of BC, we found that the porosity of BC (range: 62.99-90.66%) was negative with galU expression levels. However, the crystallinity of BC (range: 56.25-85.99%) was positive with galU expression levels; galU expression levels in engineered strains were lower than those in the control strains. Herein, we propose a new method for regulating the structure of BC to provide a theoretical basis for its application in different fields.

[Nectar productivity of Tilia amurensis in a broadleaved-conifer mixed forest in Changbai Mountains, China]. / 长白山针阔混交林紫椴的泌蜜量.

Tilia amurensis is one of (co-)dominant species in the broadleaved-conifer mixed forest in Northeast China, with high commercial and nectariferous values. We estimated the quantity of nectar secretion from individual trees to population or stand levels based on observation and statistical analysis. An equation for individual-tree nectar secretion was established, which was used to estimate nectar quantity at the stand level. We analyzed the relationships between nectar secretion and basal area or stem volume. The booming time for single flower was in average 6-8 days, with a nectar secretion period of about five days. The quantity for the entire period was estimated at 8.58 mg per flower. Sugar contents in the nectar, average 37.7%, showed diurnal variations, being high in the mid-noon and low in the early morning and late afternoon. The average diameter (DBH) of the species was approximately 40 cm, which was estimated to possess as much as 18×104 single flowers and 1.56 kg (or pure sugar 0.588 kg) of nectar. At the stand level, the nectar production potential was 79-147 kg (or 0.0686-0.1285 m3, pure sugar 29.78-55.42 kg) per hectare. There was a close correlation between nectar quantity and basal area or timber volume at both individual and stand levels, which could be used to estimate the nectar quantity for macro-scale forest area based on inventory data.

[Responses of Picea likiangensis radial growth to climate change in the Small Zhongdian area of Yunnan Province, Southwest China].

Picea likiangensis (Franch. ) Pritz. primary forest is one of the dominant forest types in the Small Zhongdian area in Shangri-La County of Yunnan Province. In this paper, the responses of P. likiangensis tree-ring width to climate change were analyzed by dendrochronological methods, and the dendrochronology was built by using relatively conservative detrending negative exponential curves or linear regression. Correlation analysis and response function analysis were applied to explore the relationships between the residual chronology series (RES) and climatic factors at different time scales, and pointer year analysis was used to explain the reasons of producing narrow and wide rings. In the study area, the radial growth of P. likiangensis and the increasing air temperature from 1990 to 2008 had definite 'abruption'. The temperature and precipitation in previous year growth season were the main factors limiting the present year radial growth, and especially, the temperature in previous July played a negative feedback role in the radial growth, while the sufficient precipitation in previous July promoted the radial growth. The differences in the temperature variation and precipitation variation in previous year were the main reasons for the formation of narrow and wide rings. P. likiangensis radial growth was not sensitive to the variation of PDSI.

[Soil nitrogen mineralization and primary productivity in Rhododendron aureum community of snowpacks in alpine tundra of Changbai Mountain].

Based on continuous observation of soil temperature and in situ incubation, this paper studied the effects of snow packs on soil temperature, soil nitrogen (N) mineralization, and primary productivity of Rhododendron aureum community alpine tundra in Changbai Mountain. During the snow-covered period of non-growth season (from last October to early May), test soil had an increasing N content, and accumulated sufficient mineralized N for plant growth in the coming year. The soil under snow packs in snow-covered period had a mean temperature -3.0 degrees C, and its N mineralization was more vigorous, with available N increased by 3.88 g x m(-2); while the soil with no snowpack had a mean temperature -7.5 degrees C, and the available N only increased by 1.21 g x m(-2). During growth season (from mid May to late August), soil N content decreased. In autumn when plants stopped growing, soil available N content tended to increase. In winter, the soil temperature under snowpacks kept at around 0 degrees C or a little lower, which promoted soil N mineralization, while that with no snowpack was in a frozen status. The difference in soil N mineralization was the key factor resulting in the higher primary productivity of snowpack Rh. aureum community and the driving force for the spatial variation of vegetation.

[Biomass of Quercus fabri population under different ecological restoration regimes in subtropical China].

In this paper, the tissue-specific biomass and above-ground biomass of Quercus fabri under different ecological restoration regimes in subtropical China were analyzed by establishing allometric models with different parameters. The best-fitted equations were adopted for estimating the biomass and its annual growth, and the below-ground biomass and its increment were estimated on the basis of its linear relationship with above-ground biomass. The results showed that the biomass of the branches and of the total above-ground tissues was best described by power-function models, and the best fitted independent variables were d2l and D2H, respectively. The tissue-specific biomass and total biomass of Q. fabri population were all greater in secondary forest than in Pinus elliottii plantation. The above-ground biomass and below-ground biomass of Q. fabri population in secondary forest were 3.592 and 1.723 t x hm(-2), respectively, in which, different tissue components were ranked in the order of stem > branch > leaf; while those in P. elliottii plantation were 0.666 and 0.462 t x hm(-2), respectively, in which, different tissue components were ranked in the order of stem > leaf > branch. From 2004 to 2006, the annual increments of above-ground, below-ground, and total biomass increased with time, and the increment of above-ground biomass had an ascent tendency, which was from 54.35% to 62.20% in P. elliottii plantation and from 67.27% to 68.94% in secondary forest. In comparing with that in secondary forest, the biomass increment of Q. fabri population in P. elliottii plantation was small, despite its relatively high growth rate.

[Estimation models of understory shrub biomass and their applications in red soil hilly region].

With 16 familiar species of understory shrub at Qianyezhou ecological experimental station in red soil hilly region under Chinese Academy of Sciences as test objects, crown area (A(c)) and projected volume (V(c)) were used as the variables for building quadratic and power allometric equations, respectively, to estimate the biomass of individual populations, and mixed-model was used to estimate the biomass of the 16 species. The best-fit models were applied to estimate the biomass of understory shrub in different forest types. The results showed that the biomass of shrub layer varied significantly among different stand types. With species-specific models, the biomass in deciduous, secondary, and coniferous forests was estimated as 4 773, 3 175 and 733 kg x hm(-2), respectively; while with mixed model, the estimation result was a little lower, being 3 946, 2 772 and 840 kg x hm(-2), respectively. Under the conditions of species-specific models being not established, mixed model was more convenient and practical in estimating the biomass of understory shrub.

[Aboveground biomass of three conifers in Qianyanzhou plantation].

In this paper, the regressive models of the aboveground biomass of Pinus elliottii, P. massoniana and Cunninghamia lanceolata in Qianyanzhou of subtropical China were established, and the regression analysis on the dry weight of leaf biomass and total biomass against branch diameter (d), branch length (L), d3 and d2L was conducted with linear, power and exponent functions. Power equation with single parameter (d) was proved to be better than the rests for P. massoniana and C. lanceolata, and linear equation with parameter (d3) was better for P. elliottii. The canopy biomass was derived by the regression equations for all branches. These equations were also used to fit the relationships of total tree biomass, branch biomass and foliage biomass with tree diameter at breast height (D), tree height (H), D3 and D2H, respectively. D2H was found to be the best parameter for estimating total biomass. For foliage-and branch biomass, both parameters and equation forms showed some differences among species. Correlations were highly significant (P <0.001) for foliage-, branch-and total biomass, with the highest for total biomass. By these equations, the aboveground biomass and its allocation were estimated, with the aboveground biomass of P. massoniana, P. elliottii, and C. lanceolata forests being 83.6, 72. 1 and 59 t x hm(-2), respectively, and more stem biomass than foliage-and branch biomass. According to the previous studies, the underground biomass of these three forests was estimated to be 10.44, 9.42 and 11.48 t x hm(-2), and the amount of fixed carbon was 47.94, 45.14 and 37.52 t x hm(-2), respectively.

[Interspecific association between understory species in a southern highland plantation].

Based upon 2 x 2 contingency table, chi2 test and association coefficient were used to determine the interspecific association between understory species in a southern highland plantation, and to analyze the restoration degree and the stability of southern highland vegetations originated from plantation. The Qianyanzhou in Taihe County of Jiangxi Province, a typical sample of southern highland plantation, was chosen to make the study. The results showed that both in shrub layer and in herb layer, species pair with chi2 reaching significant level (P <0.05) was few in number. In shrub layer, 12 species pairs' association was highly significant (P < 0.01), 19 pairs' was significant (P < 0.05), and other 200 pairs' was nonsignificant, while in herb layer, 11 pairs' was highly significant, 11 pairs' was significant and other 83 pairs' was nonsignificant. According to interspecific association and correlation, shrub layer was divided into two species groups: Group I . Adinandra bockiana, Syzygiumn grijsii, Vaccinium bracteatunm, Ilex aculeolata, Smilax ferox, Eurya muricata and Group II . Lespedeza davidii, Serissa serissoides, Vitex negundo var. cannabifolia. Many species in Group I had a significantly negative association with the species in Group II, and dominant species always played a key role in the relationships among species. The three dominant species in herb layer, Wooduardia japonica, Dryopteris atrata and Adiantun flabellulaturn, had a highly significant positive correlation between each other, and moreover, had a significant or highly significant positive association with many other herbaceous species. Similarily, dominant species in shrub layer played a key role on the interspecific association in the two species groups. The ratios of positive and negative association indicating the species compositions of the two layers were fluctuating, which was 125/106 in shrub layer and 42/63 in herb layer. Several shortcomings of interspecific association method were pointed out, with some proposals put forward.

Image analysis and coummunity monitoring on coniferous forest dynamics in Changbai Mountain.

The structure and dynamics of coniferous forests in Changbai Mountain were studied at different spatial scales, including ground survey of permanent plots and analysis of multitemporal satellite images. Plot-scale examinations showed that the mortality rate was 7% - 9%, and the recruitment rate was 18% - 20% per 10 years. Species composition changed over time. Picea jezoensis var. microsperma, Abies nephrolepis and Betula ermanii presented a self-maintaining capability, because they could regenerate under canopy. Larix olgensis was a pioneer species and could regenerate only in open land or gaps. This species played an important role by providing conditions for the regeneration of spruce and fir. The tree density in the mature forest was 1 000 stems x hm(-2) for trees bigger than 3 cm in diameter, which showed no significant variations among different stands. Landsat TM images were used for detecting the cover changes from 1984 to 1997. Large scales of wind throw were detected by this approach. Based on t he analysis of radiance changes at the landscape scale, the pixel number of the disturbed area was similar to that of the succeeding stands, suggesting that the forest was in a state of equilibrium. Fine gaps, however, were difficult to identify with the TM data because of its coarse resolution. The mosaic structure ofthe subalpine vegetation was characterized by scattered larch patches. At the landscape level, the vegetation was in a stable stage.