The Effect of Menthol Mouth Rinsing and Fluid Temperature on Male Cycling Performance in Thermoneutral Conditions.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a menthol (MEN) mouth rinse (MR) on cycling time trial (TT) performance in thermoneutral conditions and to explore the impact of fluid temperature (cold water [CW] or thermoneutral water [TNW]) on MEN's effect on performance. METHODS: Twelve trained male cyclists (VO2 peak, 61.4 ± 12.1 mL/kg/min) completed a cycling TT in thermoneutral conditions (21 ± 0.2 °C, 40 ± 0.6% relative humidity) with four different mouth rinses: (1) MEN + CW; (2) MEN + TNW; (3) CW; and (4) TNW. The time to complete the TT and the power output (W) were recorded. The ratings of perceived exertion (RPE, Borg 6-20), thermal sensation (TS), and thermal comfort (TC) were recorded prior to and throughout the TT. The core body temperature (Tc) and heart rate (HR) were recorded throughout. RESULTS: The TT duration was not significantly different between trials (MEN + TNW: 38:11 ± 12:48, MEN + CW: 37:21 ± 13:00, CW: 38:12 ± 13:54, TNW: 36:06 ± 14:12 mins:secs, p < 0.05). The mean trial power output did not significantly differ between conditions (>0.05). The Tc, HR, RPE, TS, and TC were not significantly different between trials (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: The results suggest that a MEN MR with either CW or TNW does not significantly improve cycling TT performance in trained male cyclists compared to a CW or TNW MR in thermoneutral conditions.

How Cool is That? The Effects of Menthol Mouth Rinsing on Exercise Capacity and Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Menthol (MEN) mouth rinsing (MR) has gained considerable interest in the athletic population for exercise performance; however, the overall magnitude of effect is unknown. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to determine the efficacy of menthol MEN MR and the impact it has on exercise capacity and performance. METHODS: Three databases were searched with articles screened according to the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Three-level meta-analyses were used to investigate the overall efficacy of MEN MR and the impact it has on exercise capacity and performance. Meta-regressions were then performed with 1) mean VO2peak, 2) MEN swilling duration; 3) the MEN concentration of MR solution, 4) the number of executed swills throughout a single experiment, 5) the use of flavoured sweetened, non-caloric, or non-flavoured neutral solutions as controls, 6) mean environmental temperature at the time of exercise tests, and 7) exercise type as fixed factors to evaluate their influence on the effects of MEN MR. RESULTS: Ten MEN MR studies included sufficient information pertaining to MEN MR and exercise performance and capacity. MR with MEN resulted in no significant change in capacity and performance (SMD = 0.12; 95% CI - 0.08, 0.31; p = 0.23, n = 1, tau21 < 0.0001, tau22 = < 0.0001, I2 = 0%). No significant influence was detected in meta-regressions for VO2peak, (estimate: 0.03; df = 8; 95% CI - 0.03, 0.09; p = 0.27), swilling duration (5 vs. 10 s: 0.00; df = 16; 95% CI - 0.41, 0.41; p = 1.0), MEN concentration (low [0.01%] vs. high [0.1%]: - 0.08; df = 15; 95% CI - 0.49, 0.32; p = 0.67), number of swills (estimate: 0.02; df = 13; 95% CI - 0.05, 0.09; p = 0.56), the use of flavoured sweetener or non-caloric as control (non-flavoured vs. flavoured: 0.12; df = 16; 95% CI - 0.30, 0.55; p = 0.55) or mean room temperature during exercise tests (estimate: 0.01; df = 16; 95% CI - 0.02, 0.04; p = 0.62). CONCLUSION: MEN MR did not significantly improve overall exercise capacity and performance, though those involved in endurance exercise may see benefits.

Reliability of anaerobic and aerobic mobility performance tests used in wheelchair rugby, wheelchair basketball and wheelchair tennis: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the reliability and validity of field-based mobility and performance tests used within the wheelchair sports of basketball (WCB), rugby (WCR) and tennis (WCT) can assist in understanding an athletes' physiological state, training effects, and/or assist with optimising their wheelchair-user interface. PURPOSE: To examine, evaluate and synthesize current aerobic and anaerobic field-based mobility and performance tests used in WCB, WCR and WCT. METHODS: A systematic search was performed according to PRISMA guidelines. Studies were included if they investigated performance tests in WCB, WCR and WCT and reported reliability. RESULTS: Twenty-one studies covering 45 mobility/performance tests were included (anaerobic, n = 35; aerobic, n = 10), with agility and repeated sprints (n = 13) being the most common, followed by linear-sprints (n = 11). Repeated sprint ability (n = 2) and submaximal field-tests (n = 2) were the least frequent. Intra-class correlations among all tests ranged from 0.62 to 0.99, with agility and repeated sprints being 0.65-0.98, followed by values of 0.62-0.99 for linear-sprint, 0.96-0.99 for repeated sprints and 0.85-0.97 for submaximal field-tests. CONCLUSION: The most frequently measured performance tests were anaerobic tests focusing on agility and repeated sprints. Given the low number of aerobic tests in WCB, WCR and WCT, future research should focus on reliable and valid ways to measure and track performance.

Metabolic and Performance Responses to a Simulated Routine in Elite Artistic Swimmers.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the interrelationship between time spent underwater (UW), movement frequency and accompanying blood acid base balance response. Elite artistic swimmers (n = 6) participated in the investigation and were all familiar with the testing procedures. All athletes completed the same choreographed artistic swimming routine. The routine was videoed and the number of movements during each 'lap' of the routine counted. Fingertip capillary blood samples were collected prior to the routine 60 sec post routine for pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), bicarbonate (HCO3-) and potassium (K+). and lactate (La) concentration (mmol/L). On a separate day an incremental exercise test to exhaustion was performed on a cycle ergometer for determination of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Over half the routine was performed underwater (56 ± 4%). Aside from pCO2 (-1.07 ± 12.29%, p = 0.686), there were significant changes in all variables measured from the BG analysis. VO2peak was significantly correlated to total UW of the routine (r = -0.93; p = 0.007). as well as ∆PO2 r = 0.47 and ∆HCO3 r = 0.51. There was also a significant correlation between total UW and post routine pCO2 (r = 0.86; p = 0.030). There was also a significant correlation between total movements during the routine and post pO2 (r = -0.83; p = 0.044). These data show UW in combination with movement rate during a AS routine imfluence the metabolic response to the exercise. In addition, VO2max represents an important performance variable influencing AS performance.

Correction: McKinlay et al. Effects of Post-Exercise Whey Protein Consumption on Recovery Indices in Adolescent Swimmers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7761.

The authors of "Effects of Post-Exercise Whey Protein Consumption on Recovery Indices in Adolescent Swimmers" report an error in Table 1 of their article [...].

Characterizing the Thermal Demands and Mobility Performance During International Wheelchair Rugby Competition.

Objective: To determine the thermoregulatory responses and mobility performance of wheelchair rugby (WCR) players during international competition. Methods: Eleven male National Team WCR players volunteered for the study. Testing occurred during a four game series against international competition (temp 24.7 ± 0.7°C, relative humidity 50.1 ± 3.6%), with movement time (MT) and gastrointestinal temperature (Tgi) recorded continuously. Results: The mean maximal Tgi was 38.6 ± 0.6°C (37.9-39.7) and did not significantly differ among Low-Class, Mid-Class, and High-Class athletes (p > 0.05). Moreover, there was a strong and significant relationship between minutes (min) played per quarter of the game and change in Tgi (r = 0.36, p = 0.01). Athletes moved a total of 27:43 ± 9:40 min:seconds (s), spent a total of 15:02 ± 8.23 min:s in Zone 1 (53.5%), 8:19 ± 3:20 min:s in Zone 2 (31.7%), and 5:59 ± 1:51 min:s in Zone 3 (21.3%). There were no differences among classification in total movement time (p = 0.169) or for speed in Zone 1, Zone 2, or Zone 3 (p > 0.05). The relationship between peak forward speed and total movement time was strong (p = 0.021, r = 0.68). Conclusion: This study demonstrated that the time spent in absolute movement zones is not classification dependent, the change in core temperature is related to movement time per quarter. Furthermore, peak speeds obtained on-court were linked to overall movement time which suggests athletes should warm-up before going on court.

Menstrual Cycle Related Fluctuations in Circulating Markers of Bone Metabolism at Rest and in Response to Running in Eumenorrheic Females.

This study examined potential fluctuations in bone metabolic markers across the menstrual cycle both at rest and after a 30-min bout of continuous running at 80% of V̇O2max. Resting and post-exercise (0, 30, 90 min) sclerostin, parathyroid hormone (PTH), carboxy-terminal cross-linking telopeptide of type I collagen (ß-CTXI), and procollagen type 1 N propeptide (PINP) were assessed in 10 eumenorrheic women (age: 21 ± 3 y, BMI: 23.2 ± 3.0 kg.m2) during the mid- to late-follicular (FP: day 8.0 ± 1.4) and mid-luteal (LP: day 22.0 ± 2.5) phases of the menstrual cycle. Ovulation was determined using ovulation kits and daily measurement of oral body temperature upon awakening. Menstrual cycle phase was subsequently confirmed by measurement of plasma estradiol and progesterone. On average, resting estradiol concentrations increased from 46.3 ± 8.9 pg·mL-1 in the FP to 67.3 ± 23.4 pg·mL-1 in the LP (p = 0.015), and resting progesterone increased from 4.12 ± 2.36 ng·mL-1 in the FP to 11.86 ± 4.49 ng·mL-1 in the LP (p < 0.001). At rest, there were no differences between menstrual cycle phases in sclerostin (FP: 260.1 ± 135.0 pg·mL-1; LP: 303.5 ± 99.9 pg·mL-1; p = 0.765), PTH (FP: 0.96 ± 0.64 pmol·L-1; LP: 0.79 ± 0.44 pmol·L-1; p = 0.568), ß-CTXI (FP: 243.1 ± 158.0 ng·L-1; LP: 202.4 ± 92.3 ng·L-1; p = 0.198), and PINP (FP: 53.6 ± 8.9 µg·L-1; LP: 66.2 ± 20.2 µg·L-1; p = 0.093). Main effects for time (p < 0.05) were shown in sclerostin, PTH, ß-CTXI and PINP, without phase or interaction effects. Sclerostin increased from pre- to immediately post-exercise (45%; p = 0.007), and so did PTH (43%; p = 0.011), both returning to resting concentrations 30 min post-exercise. ß-CTXI decreased from pre- to post-exercise (20%; p = 0.027) and was still below its pre-exercise concentrations at 90 min post-exercise (17%; p = 0.013). PINP increased immediately post-exercise (29%; p < 0.001), returning to resting concentrations at 30 min post-exercise. These results demonstrate no effect of menstrual cycle phase on resting bone marker concentrations or on the bone metabolic marker response to intense exercise.

Acute Physiological Response to Different Sprint Training Protocols in Normobaric Hypoxia.

BACKGROUND: the purpose of this study was to examine acute physiological responses to and the performance effects of two sprint training protocols in normobaric hypoxic conditions. METHODS: Healthy competitive female (n = 2) and male (n = 5) kayakers (19 ± 2.1 years) performed four sprint training sessions on a kayak ergometer over a period of two weeks. Participants performed five sets of 12 × 5 s sprints or 3 × 20 s sprints in both normobaric normoxic (NOR, FiO2 = 20.9%) or normobaric hypoxic (HYP, FiO2 = 13.6%) conditions. The peak power output (PPO), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and heart rate (HR) of each participant were monitored continuously. Their blood lactate concentrations ([BLa+]), in addition to their blood gas (mixed-venous partial pressure (p) of carbon dioxide (pCO2), O2 (pO2), and oxygen saturations (sO2)) were collected before and after exercise. RESULTS: A significantly greater RPE, HR, and [BLa+] response and a significant decrease in pCO2, pO2, and sO2 were observed in HYP conditions versus NOR ones, independent of the type of training session. The PPO of participants did not differ between sessions. Their RPE in HYP12 × 5 was greater compared to all other sessions. CONCLUSIONS: The HYP conditions elicited significantly greater physiological strain compared to NOR conditions and this was similar in both training sessions. Our results suggest that either sprint training protocol in HYP conditions may induce more positive training adaptations compared to sprint training in NOR conditions.

Menthol Mouth Rinsing Is More Than Just a Mouth Wash-Swilling of Menthol to Improve Physiological Performance.

Interventions that solely act on the central nervous system (CNS) are gaining considerable interest, particularly products consumed through the oral cavity. The oropharyngeal cavity contains a wide array of receptors that respond to sweet, bitter, and cold tastants, all of which have been shown to improve physiological performance. Of late, the ergogenic benefits of carbohydrate (CHO) and caffeine (CAF) mouth rinsings (MRs) have been widely studied; however, less is known about menthol (MEN). That the physiological state and environmental conditions impact the response each product has is increasingly recognized. While the effects of CHO and CAF MRs have been thoroughly studied in both hot and thermoneutral conditions, less is known about MEN as it has only been studied in hot environments. As such, this review summarizes the current knowledge regarding the MEN MR and exercise modality, frequency of the mouth rinse, and mouth rinse duration and compares two different types of study designs: time trials vs. time to exhaustion (TTE).

Applicability of Maximal Ergometer Testing and Sprint Performance in Adolescent Endurance and Sprint Trained Swimmers.

Sprint swimming is a short duration, high intensity sport requiring a relatively greater contribution of energy from anaerobic metabolism. Understanding energy system utilization for the classification of a competitive swimmer (sprint or distance) may be useful for both training prescription and event specialization. The relationship between anaerobic swim ergometer testing and adolescent sprint swimming performance has not been investigated. The purpose of this study was to compare the performance and physiological responses during a maximal all-out ergometer test as well as the maximal anaerobic lactate test in a group of sprint vs. middle-distance specialized swimmers. Sixteen (n = 16) competitive swimmers (mean ± standard deviation (SD), age 16.8 ± 0.7 year; body mass 67.3 ± 9.8 kg) were categorized into two gender matched groups: sprint (n = 8) and middle-distance (n = 8). Each athlete performed (1) a 45 s swim ergometer maximal test to determine peak and mean power output (Watts (W)), (2) a MANLT test to determine peak and average velocity as well as the post-exercise lactate response, and (3) a 50 m swim time trial. The sprint group showed a higher mean (p = 0.026) and peak (p = 0.031) velocity during the MANLT. In addition, blood lactate concentration was significantly (p < 0.01) higher in the sprint vs. middle-distance trained group at 3 and 12 min after completion of the MANLT (3-min post 11.29 ± 2.32 vs. 9.55 ± 3.48 mmol/L; 12-min post 8.23 ± 2.28 vs. 7.05 ± 2.47 mmol/L). The power output during the 45 s all-out swimming ergometer test was higher in the sprint trained group. The results of this study demonstrate the anaerobic contribution to sprint swimming measured during an all-out dryland ergometer test.

Menthol Mouth Rinsing and Cycling Performance in Females Under Heat Stress.

PURPOSE: The effects of menthol (MEN) mouth rinse (MR) on performance, physiological, and perceptual variables in female cyclists during a 30-km independent time trial (ITT) were tested. METHODS: The participants (n = 9) cycled for 30 km in hot conditions (30°C [0.6°C], 70% [1%] relative humidity, 12 [1] km/h wind speed) on 2 test occasions: with a placebo MR and with MEN MR. Handgrip and a 5-second sprint were measured before, following the first MR, and after the ITT. Ratings of perceived exertion Borg 6 to 20, thermal sensation, and thermal pleasantness were recorded every 5 km. Core temperature and heart rate were recorded throughout. RESULTS: The ITT performance significantly improved with MEN MR by 2.3% (2.7%) relative to the placebo (62.6 [5.7] vs 64.0 [4.9] min P = .034; d = 0.85; 95% confidence interval, 0.14 to 2.8 min). The average power output was significantly higher in the MEN trial (P = .031; d = 0.87; 95% confidence interval, 0.9 to 15.0 W). No significant interaction of time and MR for handgrip (P = .581, η2 = .04) or sprint was observed (P = .365, η2 = .103). Core temperature, heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, and thermal sensation did not significantly differ between trials at set distances (P > .05). Pleasantness significantly differed between the placebo and MEN only at 5 km, with no differences at other TT distances. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that a nonthermal cooling agent can improve 30-km ITT performance in female cyclists, although the improved performance with MEN MR is not due to altered thermal perception.

The Effects of Anaerobic Swim Ergometer Training on Sprint Performance in Adolescent Swimmers.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare 4 weeks of pool-based sprint interval training with a similar ergometer training intervention on a maximal anaerobic lactate test (MANLT), 50-m (competition) freestyle performance, and 6- and 30-second maximal swimming ergometer performances. METHODS: A total of 14 competitive adolescent swimmers (male, n = 8; female, n = 6) participated in this study. Swimmers were categorized into 2 sex-matched groups: swimming ergometer (ERG; n = 7) and pool-sprint training (n = 7) groups. Each athlete performed 4 preintervention and postintervention assessments consisting of a MANLT, a 50-m freestyle race, and 6- and 30-second maximal swim ERG performances. RESULTS: Both groups demonstrated a significant effect (P < .05) of time for all assessments. Group differences were observed after 4 weeks of sprint interval training as follows: (1) The ERG group had a significantly faster speed in the fourth 50-m MANLT sprint (ERG 1.58 [0.05] vs pool-sprint training 1.48 [0.07] m/s, P < .01) and (2) The ERG group demonstrated enhanced Δblood lactate post-MANLT (ERG 2.4 [1.2] vs pool-sprint training 2.7 [0.9] mmol/L, P < .05). A significant correlation was found between the 30-second maximal ERG test and 50-m freestyle swimming velocity (r = .74, P < .01, effect size = 0.52). CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate significant physiological improvements to anaerobic sprint ability after 4 weeks of sprint interval training in both swim ERG and pool-based interventions. Thus, sprint ability may be improved through multiple modalities (pool and dry land) to elicit a positive training response.

Physiological Considerations to Support Podium Performance in Para-Athletes.

The twenty-first century has seen an increase in para-sport participation and the number of research publications on para-sport and the para-athlete. Unfortunately, the majority of publications are case reports/case series or study single impairment types in isolation. Indeed, an overview of how each International Paralympic Committee classifiable impairment type impact athlete physiology, health, and performance has not been forthcoming in the literature. This can make it challenging for practitioners to appropriately support para-athletes and implement evidence-based research in their daily practice. Moreover, the lack of a cohesive publication that reviews all classifiable impairment types through a physiological lens can make it challenging for researchers new to the field to gain an understanding of unique physiological challenges facing para-athletes and to appreciate the nuances of how various impairment types differentially impact para-athlete physiology. As such, the purpose of this review is to (1) summarize how International Paralympic Committee classifiable impairments alter the normal physiological responses to exercise; (2) provide an overview of "quick win" physiological interventions targeted toward specific para-athlete populations; (3) discuss unique practical considerations for the para-sport practitioner; (4) discuss research gaps and highlight areas for future research and innovation, and (5) provide suggestions for knowledge translation and knowledge sharing strategies to advance the field of para-sport research and its application by para-sport practitioners.

Effects of Post-Exercise Whey Protein Consumption on Recovery Indices in Adolescent Swimmers.

Purpose: This study examined the effect of whey protein consumption following high-intensity interval swimming (HIIS) on muscle damage, inflammatory cytokines and performance in adolescent swimmers. Methods: Fifty-four swimmers (11-17 years-old) were stratified by age, sex and body mass to a whey protein (PRO), isoenergetic carbohydrate (CHO) or a water/placebo (H2O) group. Following baseline blood samples (06:00 h) and a standardised breakfast, participants performed a maximal 200 m swim, followed by HIIS. A total of two post-exercise boluses were consumed following HIIS and ~5 h post-baseline. Blood and 200 m performance measurements were repeated at 5 h, 8 h and 24 h from baseline. Muscle soreness was assessed at 24 h. Creatine kinase (CK), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) were measured in plasma. Results: No difference in 200 m swim performance was observed between groups. CK activity was elevated at 5 h compared to baseline and 24 h and at 8 h compared to all other timepoints, with no differences between groups. Muscle soreness was lower in PRO compared to H2O (p = 0.04). Anti-inflammatory IL-10 increased at 8 h in PRO, while it decreased in CHO and H2O. Conclusions: Post-exercise consumption of whey protein appears to have no additional benefit on recovery indices following HIIS compared to isoenergetic amounts of carbohydrate in adolescent swimmers. However, it may assist with the acute-inflammatory response.

Relationship between VO 2max , under Water Swim Testing and Artistic Swim Solo Performance.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between: 1) laboratory-determined cycling peak oxygen consumption (VO 2max ) and AS performance in a new underwater swim test (UWST), and 2) cycling VO 2max and ventilatory threshold (VT) in cycling and performance score during a simulated AS solo routine. Trained artistic swimmers (n=15, 15.8±0.8 yrs., height: 169.1±5.4 cm, body mass: 57.1±6.3 kg) completed (1) a maximal incremental cycle test to exhaustion to determine VO 2max , (2) the UWST which comprised 275 m of freestyle and underwater breaststroke, and (3) a simulated solo competition where artistic swimming elements were evaluated by five FINA judges. There was a significant correlation between mean element score and (i) VO 2max (48±4 mL . kg . min -1 , r=0.44, p =0.05), and (ii) UWST (r=-0.64, p =0.005). However, there was an insignificant relationship between cycling ventilatory threshold and mean element score (r=-0.36, p =0.10). In addition, the results demonstrate a significant relationship between HR at the ventilatory threshold and peak HR of the UWST (r=-0.64, p =0.014). The results of this study demonstrate that VO 2max is an important determinant of AS performance. In addition, the UWST appears to be a useful indicator of AS performance.

Characterizing thermoregulatory demands of female wheelchair basketball players during competition.

This study aimed to assess the thermoregulatory and cardiovascular responses of WC basketball players during international competitions. Eleven female (7 spinal cord injured (SCI) and 4 Non-SCI) National team WC basketball players volunteered for the study. Testing occurred during a four-game series against the same international competitor (temp 22.1 ± 1.2°C, relative humidity (RH) 55 ± 2%). Hydration habits were monitored and heart rate, skin (SkT) and gastrointestinal (Tc), were recorded. Athletes arrived hydrated for all games (urine specific gravity, 1.014 ± 0.002). Players lost a mean of 0.5 ± 0.1% body mass due to sweat loss and replaced ~69% of fluid losses. SCI athletes played 21 ± 4 min while Non-SCI played 14 ± 6 min. SCI athletes had a mean SkT throughout the game of 35.2 ± 0.2°C and Non-SCI of 36.2 ± 0.2°C. SCI SkT rose a mean of 6.3 ± 1.1°C and Non-SCI 6.8 ± 0.9°C. SCI Tc rose a mean of 1.0 ± 0.2°C and Non-SCI a mean of 0.9 ± 0.4°C. 2/10 players reached a Tc>39°C (SCI athlete class 1, 39.4°C; Non-SCI class 4.5 athlete, 39.5°C). There were differences between players in Tc responses, due to variability in playing time. Monitoring Tc during competition is encouraged to understand competition specific responses and identify athletes at risk of heat-related fatigue.

Disrupting prolonged sitting reduces IL-8 and lower leg swell in active young adults.

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests that disrupting prolonged bouts of sitting with short bouts of physical activity can significantly reduce blood glucose and improve insulin sensitivity; however, limited research is available on the impact of such disruptions on inflammation and swelling. The purpose of this study was to determine whether short bouts of exercise performed each hour during a 4 h sitting session were able to negate the effects of prolonged sitting (PS) on several cardiometabolic outcomes. METHODS: Eligible participants (n = 10) attended two laboratory sessions: PS (uninterrupted sitting for 4 h) and disrupted sitting (DS; 4 h sitting session disrupted by 3 min of exercise each hour (60-s warm-up at 50 W, 5 s of unloaded cycling, 20-s sprint at 5% body weight, and 95-s cool-down at 50 W)). The exercise bouts were performed at minute 60, 120, and 180. Blood and saliva samples, and measures of heart rate and blood pressure were assessed before (T1) and after (T2) each session; leg swell was measured continuously. RESULTS: Concentrations of salivary IL-8 increased during PS (T1: 0.19 ± 0.32; T2: 0.50 ± 1.00 pg/µg of protein) but decreased during DS (T1: 0.41 ± 0.23; T2: 0.22 ± 0.11 pg/µg of protein, d: 0.51, p = 0.002). Leg swell increased and plateaued in PS, but was attenuated during DS. CONCLUSION: It appears that short bouts of exercise significantly reduce swelling in the lower leg and IL-8 levels in the saliva, indicating that even among healthy, active, young adults, disrupting prolonged sitting can significantly reduce swelling and systemic inflammation.

A Physiological Overview of the Demands, Characteristics, and Adaptations of Highly Trained Artistic Swimmers: a Literature Review.

Artistic swimming (AS) is a very unique sport consisting of difficult artistically choreographed routines ranging in the number of athletes (one to ten: solo, duet, team, combination, highlight routine) and with elements performed quickly and precisely above, below, and on the surface of the water. As a result, the physical and physiological demands placed on an athlete are unique to the sport with the most pronounced adaptation being the bradycardic response to long apneic periods spent underwater while performing strenuous movements. This indeed influences training prescription and the desired training outcomes. This review paper explores the physiological demands of AS, the physiological characteristics that influence AS performance, and innovative approaches to enhancing training and performance in elite performers.

Fluid balance and thermoregulatory responses of competitive triathletes.

As little as 2% total body mass (BM) loss from sweat has been shown to compromise physiological functioning during prolonged exercise in the heat, subsequently compromising endurance performance. PURPOSE: This observational study aims to describe the fluid balance and thermoregulatory responses of competitive triathletes racing at a major international competition in a cool environment. METHODS: Fluid balance and thermoregulatory responses was measured in six (3 male, 3 female) national-level triathletes competing at the ITU World Triathlon Grand Finale in ambient temperatures of 19-20 °C (relative humidity (RH) ~55%). Dry, nude BM was recorded before and immediately following the race. Fluid intake was monitored throughout the race. Pre-race urine samples were measured for specific gravity (USG). Each athlete ingested a core temperature (Tc) pill 5 h prior to the event and was monitored before and after the race. RESULTS: Three of six triathletes arrived at the race mildly dehydrated (USG 1.021,1.024,1.030). One of these athletes (1F) subsequently withdrew from the race providing no further data. Another athlete (1M) ended the race vomiting providing invalid hydration data. The four remaining competitors' sweat loss was on average 2.15 L (range: 1.65-2.80 L), while fluid intake was 0.66 L (0.50-0.85 L). A mean loss of 3.3% (2.2-4.5%) BM was recorded. Tc increased by 2.0 °C (1.1-2.9 °C) and 4/5 athletes' (2 M, 2 F) Tc exceeded 39 °C by race-end. Both female athletes self-reported feelings of heat-related exhaustion at the completion of the race. CONCLUSIONS: Despite cool environmental conditions, elite triathletes lost ~3.3% BM, replacing only 33% of sweat losses, and achieved a Tc > 39 °C by race-end.

Bone and Inflammatory Responses to Training in Female Rowers over an Olympic Year.

INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE: To examine whether fluctuations in training load during an Olympic year lead to changes in bone mineral densities and factors that regulate bone (sclerostin, osteoprotegerin and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand), energy metabolism (insulin-like growth factor-1 and leptin), and inflammation (tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin 6) in elite heavyweight female rowers. METHODS: Blood samples were drawn from 15 female heavyweight rowers (27.0 ± 0.8 yr, 80.9 ± 1.3 kg, 179.4 ± 1.4 cm) at baseline (T1-45 wk before Olympic Games) and after 7, 9, 20, 25, and 42 wk (T1-6, respectively). Ongoing nutritional counseling was provided. Total weekly training load was recorded over the week before each time point. Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry at T1 and T6. RESULTS: Total BMD increased significantly before to after training (+0.02 g·cm), but was below the least significant change (±0.04 g·cm). Osteoprotegerin, insulin-like growth factor-1, and leptin remained stable across all time points. Fluctuations in training load (high vs low) were accompanied by parallel changes in tumor necrosis factor-α (2.1 ± 0.2 vs 1.5 ± 0.2 pg·mL), interleukin 6 (1.2 ± 0.08 vs 0.8 ± 0.09 pg·mL), and sclerostin (high: 993 ± 109 vs low: 741 ± 104 pg·mL). CONCLUSIONS: In this population of young female athletes with suitable energy availability, sclerostin and inflammation markers responded to fluctuations in training load, whereas BMD and bone mineral content were stable during the season, suggesting that training load periodization is not harmful for the bone health in athletes.