Cannabidivarin alleviates α-synuclein aggregation via DAF-16 in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Cannabidivarin (CBDV), a structural analog of cannabidiol (CBD), has received attention in recent years owing to its anticonvulsant property and potential for treating autism spectrum disorder. However, the function and mechanism of CBDV involved in the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD) remain unclear. In this work, we found that CBDV inhibited α-synuclein (α-syn) aggregation in an established transgenetic Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). The phenolic hydroxyl groups of CBDV are critical for scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), reducing the in vivo aggregation of α-syn and preventing DAergic neurons from 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced injury and degeneration. By combining multiple biophysical approaches, including nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry, transmission electron microscopy and fibrillation kinetics assays, we confirmed that CBDV does not directly interact with α-syn or inhibit the formation of α-syn fibrils in vitro. Further cellular signaling investigation showed that the ability of CBDV to prevent oxidative stress, the accumulation of α-syn and the degeneration of DAergic neurons was mediated by DAF-16 in the worms. This study demonstrates that CBDV alleviates the aggregation of α-syn in vivo and reveals that the phenolic hydroxyl groups of CBDV are critical for this activity, providing a potential for the development of CBDV as a drug candidate for PD therapeutics.

Interaction of RAGE with α-synuclein fibrils mediates inflammatory response of microglia.

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and α-synuclein (α-syn) aggregation, both as pathological hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD), crosstalk to exacerbate degeneration of dopaminergic neurons and PD progression. However, the mechanism underlying their interaction is poorly understood, which obstructs effective therapeutic inhibition of α-syn-induced neuroinflammation. Here, we initiate from structure-based interaction predictions and find that receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) serves as a receptor of α-syn fibrils on microglia. Results of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and mutagenesis validate that the V domain of RAGE that contains an alkaline surface can bind with acidic C-terminal residues of α-syn. Furthermore, the binding of α-syn fibrils with RAGE induces neuroinflammation, which is blocked by both genetic depletion of RAGE and inhibitor FPS-ZM1. Our work shows the important role, as well as the structural mechanism, of RAGE in mediating the inflammatory response of microglia to α-syn fibrils, which may help to establish effective therapeutic strategies to alleviate α-syn-induced neuroinflammation and neuronal damage.

Biochemical and biophysical characterization of pathological aggregation of amyloid proteins.

Protein amyloid fibrillation, a process of liquid to solid phase transition, is involved in the pathogenesis of a variety of human diseases. Several amyloid proteins including α-synuclein (α-syn), Tau, amyloid ß (Aß) protein, and TAR DNA-binding protein 43 kDa (TDP-43) form pathological fibrils and deposit in patient brains of different neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Preparation and characterization of amyloid fibrils in vitro are essential for studying the molecular mechanism underlying the dynamic amyloid aggregation and its pathogenesis in diseases. In this protocol, we take PD-associated α-syn as an example, and describe amyloid protein purification and fibrillation approaches. We then introduce biochemical and biophysical characterization of amyloid fibrils by Thioflavin-T (ThT) fluorescence kinetics assay, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and multiple fibril stability measurement assays. The approaches described here are applicable to different amyloid proteins, and are of importance for further study on the structure determination of amyloid fibrils and their pathological function in cells and animal models.

Cellular and animal models to investigate pathogenesis of amyloid aggregation in neurodegenerative diseases.

Abnormal aggregation of amyloid proteins, e.g. amyloid ß (Aß), Tau and α-synuclein (α-syn), is closely associated with a variety of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Cellular and animal models are useful to explore the neuropathology of amyloid aggregates in disease initiation and progression. In this protocol, we describe detailed procedures for how to establish neuronal and PD mouse models to evaluate amyloid pathologies including self-propagation, cell-to-cell transmission, neurotoxicity, and impact on mouse motor and cognitive functions. We use α-syn, a key pathogenic protein in PD, as an example to demonstrate the application of the protocol, while it can be used to investigate the pathologies of other amyloid proteins as well. The established disease models are also useful to assess the activities of drug candidates for therapeutics of neurodegenerative diseases.

The hereditary mutation G51D unlocks a distinct fibril strain transmissible to wild-type α-synuclein.

α-Synuclein (α-Syn) can form different fibril strains with distinct polymorphs and neuropathologies, which is associated with the clinicopathological variability in synucleinopathies. How different α-syn fibril strains are produced and selected under disease conditions remains poorly understood. In this study, we show that the hereditary mutation G51D induces α-syn to form a distinct fibril strain in vitro. The cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the G51D fibril strain was determined at 2.96 Å resolution. The G51D fibril displays a relatively small and extended serpentine fold distinct from other α-syn fibril structures. Moreover, we show by cryo-EM that wild-type (WT) α-syn can assembly into the G51D fibril strain via cross-seeding with G51D fibrils. Our study reveals a distinct structure of G51D fibril strain triggered by G51D mutation but feasibly adopted by both WT and G51D α-syn, which suggests the cross-seeding and strain selection of WT and mutant α-syn in familial Parkinson's disease (fPD).

Mechanistic basis for receptor-mediated pathological α-synuclein fibril cell-to-cell transmission in Parkinson's disease.

The spread of pathological α-synuclein (α-syn) is a crucial event in the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). Cell surface receptors such as lymphocyte activation gene 3 (LAG3) and amyloid precursor-like protein 1 (APLP1) can preferentially bind α-syn in the amyloid over monomeric state to initiate cell-to-cell transmission. However, the molecular mechanism underlying this selective binding is unknown. Here, we perform an array of biophysical experiments and reveal that LAG3 D1 and APLP1 E1 domains commonly use an alkaline surface to bind the acidic C terminus, especially residues 118 to 140, of α-syn. The formation of amyloid fibrils not only can disrupt the intramolecular interactions between the C terminus and the amyloid-forming core of α-syn but can also condense the C terminus on fibril surface, which remarkably increase the binding affinity of α-syn to the receptors. Based on this mechanism, we find that phosphorylation at serine 129 (pS129), a hallmark modification of pathological α-syn, can further enhance the interaction between α-syn fibrils and the receptors. This finding is further confirmed by the higher efficiency of pS129 fibrils in cellular internalization, seeding, and inducing PD-like α-syn pathology in transgenic mice. Our work illuminates the mechanistic understanding on the spread of pathological α-syn and provides structural information for therapeutic targeting on the interaction of α-syn fibrils and receptors as a potential treatment for PD.

Wild-type α-synuclein inherits the structure and exacerbated neuropathology of E46K mutant fibril strain by cross-seeding.

Heterozygous point mutations of α-synuclein (α-syn) have been linked to the early onset and rapid progression of familial Parkinson's diseases (fPD). However, the interplay between hereditary mutant and wild-type (WT) α-syn and its role in the exacerbated pathology of α-syn in fPD progression are poorly understood. Here, we find that WT mice inoculated with the human E46K mutant α-syn fibril (hE46K) strain develop early-onset motor deficit and morphologically different α-syn aggregation compared with those inoculated with the human WT fibril (hWT) strain. By using cryo-electron microscopy, we reveal at the near-atomic level that the hE46K strain induces both human and mouse WT α-syn monomers to form the fibril structure of the hE46K strain. Moreover, the induced hWT strain inherits most of the pathological traits of the hE46K strain as well. Our work suggests that the structural and pathological features of mutant strains could be propagated by the WT α-syn in such a way that the mutant pathology would be amplified in fPD.

A novel partially open state of SHP2 points to a "multiple gear" regulation mechanism.

The protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 mediates multiple signal transductions in various cellular pathways, controlled by a variety of upstream inputs. SHP2 dysregulation is causative of different types of cancers and developmental disorders, making it a promising drug target. However, how SHP2 is modulated by its different regulators remains largely unknown. Here, we use single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer and molecular dynamics simulations to investigate this question. We identify a partially open, semiactive conformation of SHP2 that is intermediate between the known open and closed states. We further demonstrate a "multiple gear" regulatory mechanism, in which different activators (e.g., insulin receptor substrate-1 and CagA), oncogenic mutations (e.g., E76A), and allosteric inhibitors (e.g., SHP099) can shift the equilibrium of the three conformational states and regulate SHP2 activity to different levels. Our work reveals the essential role of the intermediate state in fine-tuning the activity of SHP2, which may provide new opportunities for drug development for relevant cancers.

Parkinson's disease-related phosphorylation at Tyr39 rearranges α-synuclein amyloid fibril structure revealed by cryo-EM.

Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of α-synuclein (α-syn), e.g., phosphorylation, play an important role in modulating α-syn pathology in Parkinson's disease (PD) and α-synucleinopathies. Accumulation of phosphorylated α-syn fibrils in Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites is the histological hallmark of these diseases. However, it is unclear how phosphorylation relates to α-syn pathology. Here, by combining chemical synthesis and bacterial expression, we obtained homogeneous α-syn fibrils with site-specific phosphorylation at Y39, which exhibits enhanced neuronal pathology in rat primary cortical neurons. We determined the cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the pY39 α-syn fibril, which reveals a fold of α-syn with pY39 in the center of the fibril core forming an electrostatic interaction network with eight charged residues in the N-terminal region of α-syn. This structure composed of residues 1 to 100 represents the largest α-syn fibril core determined so far. This work provides structural understanding on the pathology of the pY39 α-syn fibril and highlights the importance of PTMs in defining the polymorphism and pathology of amyloid fibrils in neurodegenerative diseases.

Parkinson's disease associated mutation E46K of α-synuclein triggers the formation of a distinct fibril structure.

Amyloid aggregation of α-synuclein (α-syn) is closely associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) and other synucleinopathies. Several single amino-acid mutations (e.g. E46K) of α-syn have been identified causative to the early onset of familial PD. Here, we report the cryo-EM structure of an α-syn fibril formed by N-terminally acetylated E46K mutant α-syn (Ac-E46K). The fibril structure represents a distinct fold of α-syn, which demonstrates that the E46K mutation breaks the electrostatic interactions in the wild type (WT) α-syn fibril and thus triggers the rearrangement of the overall structure. Furthermore, we show that the Ac-E46K fibril is less resistant to harsh conditions and protease cleavage, and more prone to be fragmented with an enhanced seeding capability than that of the WT fibril. Our work provides a structural view to the severe pathology of the PD familial mutation E46K of α-syn and highlights the importance of electrostatic interactions in defining the fibril polymorphs.

Nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase uses its NAD+ substrate-binding site to chaperone phosphorylated Tau.

Tau hyper-phosphorylation and deposition into neurofibrillary tangles have been found in brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies. Molecular chaperones are involved in regulating the pathological aggregation of phosphorylated Tau (pTau) and modulating disease progression. Here, we report that nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase (NMNAT), a well-known NAD+ synthase, serves as a chaperone of pTau to prevent its amyloid aggregation in vitro as well as mitigate its pathology in a fly tauopathy model. By combining NMR spectroscopy, crystallography, single-molecule and computational approaches, we revealed that NMNAT adopts its enzymatic pocket to specifically bind the phosphorylated sites of pTau, which can be competitively disrupted by the enzymatic substrates of NMNAT. Moreover, we found that NMNAT serves as a co-chaperone of Hsp90 for the specific recognition of pTau over Tau. Our work uncovers a dedicated chaperone of pTau and suggests NMNAT as a key node between NAD+ metabolism and Tau homeostasis in aging and neurodegeneration.

Hsp27 chaperones FUS phase separation under the modulation of stress-induced phosphorylation.

Protein phase separation drives the assembly of membraneless organelles, but little is known about how these membraneless organelles are maintained in a metastable liquid- or gel-like phase rather than proceeding to solid aggregation. Here, we find that human small heat-shock protein 27 (Hsp27), a canonical chaperone that localizes to stress granules (SGs), prevents FUS from undergoing liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) via weak interactions with the FUS low complexity (LC) domain. Remarkably, stress-induced phosphorylation of Hsp27 alters its activity, leading Hsp27 to partition with FUS LC to preserve the liquid phase against amyloid fibril formation. NMR spectroscopy demonstrates that Hsp27 uses distinct structural mechanisms for both functions. Our work reveals a fine-tuned regulation of Hsp27 for chaperoning FUS into either a polydispersed state or a LLPS state and suggests an essential role for Hsp27 in stabilizing the dynamic phase of stress granules.