Physical and chemical indicators of transformations of poultry carcass parts and broiler litter during short term thermophilic composting.

Short-term on-site composting of poultry carcasses and broiler litter (BL) is considered as a feasible technology for pathogen elimination during events of mass mortality in poultry houses. However, factors related to mass losses and physical transformation of the poultry carcass, and associated emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and odors, have not been thoroughly evaluated. This study aims to characterize the degradation of separated carcass parts co-composted with BL and the associated air emissions during 30 days of enclosed composting at 50 °C with constant aeration. The study was carried out in lab-scale simulators using five mixtures containing feathers, rib bones, skins, breast muscles, and hearts and livers, prepared at a 1:2 volumetric ratio (carcass:BL). Dry mass losses reached 59.5, 41.1, 60.8 and 103.5% (based on weight) or 48.4, 29.6, 49.7, and 94.8% (based on CO2-C and NH3-N emissions), for rib bones, skins, breast muscles, and hearts and livers, respectively. Visually, most of the carcass parts were degraded, and the typical carcass odor had disappeared by the end of the 30 days. Out of 24 VOCs, dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) and dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS) contributed 80.7-88.3% of the total VOC flux, considering the partial contribution of each part to the emissions involved with the whole carcass. DMDS, DMTS, benzaldehyde, methanethiol, pentanoic acid, and NH3, contributed 90.5-97.9% of the odor activity values during composting. DMDS/DMTS ratio is suggested as a potential biomarker of stabilization and readiness of the compost for transportation toward further treatment or safe burial.

Newcastle disease virus in little owls (Athene noctua) and African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) in an Israeli zoo.

Newcastle disease is a contagious and often fatal disease, capable of affecting all species of birds. A velogenic Newcastle disease virus (vNDV) outbreak occurred in an Israeli zoo, in which Little owls (Athene noctua) and African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) were found positive for presence of NDV. Some of them have died. The diagnostic process included: post-mortem examination, histopathology, real-time RT-PCR assay, virus isolation, serology, intracerebral pathogenicity index and phylogenetic analysis. A vNDV was diagnosed and found to be closely related to isolates from vNDV outbreaks that occurred in commercial poultry flocks during 2011. All isolates were classified as lineage 5d.

Alzheimer's disease drug discovery: in vivo screening using Caenorhabditis elegans as a model for ß-amyloid peptide-induced toxicity.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex human neurodegenerative disease. Currently the therapeutics for AD only treats the symptoms. While numbers of excellent studies have used mammalian models to discover new compounds, the time and effort involved with screening large numbers of candidates is prohibitive. Cultured mammalian neurons are often used to perform high-throughput screens (HTS); however, cell culture lacks the organismal complexity involved in AD. To address these issues several researchers are turning to the roundworm, Caenorhabditis elegans. C. elegans has numerous models of both Tau and Ab induced toxicity, the two prime components observed to correlate with AD pathology. These models have led to the discovery of numerous AD modulating candidates. Further, the ease of performing RNA interference for any gene in the C. elegans genome allows for identification of proteins involved in the mechanism of drug action. These attributes make C. elegans well positioned to aid in the discovery of new AD therapies.

The impact of temperature during the storage of table eggs on the viability of Salmonella enterica serovars Enteritidis and Virchow in the Eggs.

Salmonellosis is a foodborne infection of major economic importance. Contamination of table eggs with Salmonella, especially Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, is a major health concern worldwide. Recently, S. enterica serovar Virchow has emerged as a major pathogen in Israel, where it is among the 3 most prevalent serovars found in poultry and the second most prevalent serovar isolated from individuals with salmonellosis. Although there is ample knowledge regarding the role of S. enterica serovar Enteritidis in contamination of eggs, virtually nothing is known regarding the possible association of S. enterica serovar Virchow with table eggs. Therefore, our goal was to examine the capability of serovar Virchow to contaminate chicken eggs. Commercial table eggs were inoculated independently with serovar Enteritidis and with serovar Virchow cells at a concentration of 10(5) cfu/egg, either on the shell surface or by injection into the yolk. The numbers of live Salmonella cells on the shell and within the egg were determined at various time points. At both low (6 degrees C) and room temperatures (25 degrees C), S. enterica serovar Virchow was not detected on the eggshell after 2 wk, whereas S. enterica serovar Enteritidis could be detected only sporadically at 25 degrees C. In contrast, within the eggs, S. enterica serovar Virchow survived for up to 6 wk at 6 degrees C, and it multiplied up to 10(9) cfu/mL of egg content from 2 to 8 wk postinoculation at 25 degrees C. In comparison, S. enterica serovar Enteritidis survived within the eggs up to 8 wk at 6 degrees C and at 25 degrees C. Our results suggest that in cold storage, serovar Virchow is able to persist for long periods (6 wk), and at room temperature, these bacteria can multiply within eggs and reach high concentrations. Therefore, eggs might be considered potential vectors for transmitting S. enterica serovar Virchow into the food chain.

The contribution of feathers in the spread of chicken anemia virus.

Chicken anemia virus (CAV) spreads vertically and horizontally, however, the process is mostly still obscure. To further clarify the horizontal CAV spread, we examined the contribution of feathers. We demonstrated that CAV could be amplified from DNA purified from feather shafts of experimentally infected chicks, and the process efficacy was evaluated by comparing the amplification of DNA purified from feather shafts and lymphoid organs of CAV-experimentally infected chicks. DNA from feathers was found as an efficient source for CAV detection. Further, to substantiate whether CAV reaches the feather shafts passively via the blood, or intrinsically, causing histopathological changes, the feather follicle tissues were examined for CAV-induced lesions. Specific histological changes were found, however, immunohistochemistry failed to detect viral proteins. To determine whether the feather shafts are a source of infective virus, they were homogenized and used to infect 1-day-old chicks via the mucosal entries (eyes, nose and oropharynx). That infection mode simulates the natural route of horizontal infection in commercial poultry houses. We demonstrated the CAV-infection by serology, virology and pathology, showing that feather shafts carry infectious CAV either on their surface or within their feather pulp, and concluded that feathers contribute to the horizontal CAV dissemination.

Streptococcus iniae type II infections in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss.

Clinical and pathological findings (anorexia, hemorrhage, lethargy, loss of orientation and exophthalmia) indicated that Streptococcus iniae type II is responsible for a fatal disease in rainbow trout. Histopathological findings revealed that S. iniae type II produces a systemic disease, including a diffuse necrotizing myositis. The distribution of viable bacteria in infected tissues substantiated the pathological findings, confirming that S. iniae type II is responsible for a generalized septic disease of rainbow trout.

Sudden death of a bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) possibly caused by Newcastle disease virus.

An adult female bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) in the Tel Aviv University Research Zoo was found dead without previous clinical signs. The predominant pathologic changes were considerable bloody content in the intestines and enlargement of the liver, which had a rubbery consistency with color changes. Microscopic lesions consisted of multifocal histiocytic infiltration in the liver. Newcastle disease virus (NDV) was isolated from a cloacal swab and from the lungs and liver. Intracerebral pathogenicity index of the virus, as estimated in 1-day-old chicks, was repeated three times and had an average value of 1.68, indicating a velogenic strain. Numerous Clostridium septicum bacteria were found on the intestinal surface, but bioassays in which they were orally administered into chickens and mice revealed that, even though they were heavily multiplied in the intestines, they were nonpathogenic. It seems that NDV, documented for the first time in a bearded vulture in Israel, was the likely cause of sudden death.

Decreased density of epidermal dendritic cells in melanocytic naevi: the possible role of in vivo sun exposure.

Melanocytic naevi are benign skin tumours that originate in the epidermis. The pathogenesis of naevi and cutaneous malignant melanoma has been linked to sun exposure. This study evaluates alterations in the density of immunologically active epidermal dendritic cells (EDCs) in naevi in response to sun exposure. Immunohistologically stained sections of 266 naevi from patients from Israel (n=135) and Germany (n=131) were evaluated. The proportion of naevi with decreased density of HLA-DR+ (dDR+) and CD1a+ (dCD1a+) EDCs was analysed according to country, last exposure to sunlight, anatomical location and histological subtype. The risk of dDR+ was found to be linked to residence in Israel compared with Germany (odds ratio [OR] = 4.2; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.0-8.9), suggesting a latitude-dependent effect. Naevi removed in summer had a higher risk of dCD1a+ (OR = 4.7; 95% CI = 2.3-9.8) compared with those removed in winter. The most conspicuous dDR+ among the German cases, and dCD1a+ among the Israelis, occurred in naevi located on commonly exposed skin. The similar densities of EDCs in the lesional and perilesional skin of the majority of the naevi indicates that the underlying naevus cells have no effect on EDC density. It is not unlikely that an altered immune response due to dDR+ and dCD1a+ in sun-exposed skin in the vicinity of naevi contributes to the subsequent melanoma risk in highly susceptible individuals.

Avian paramyxoviruses serotype 3 isolated from captive birds in Israel: clinical signs, pathology, and antigenic characterization.

Thirteen HA agents were isolated in Israel from captive flamingoes (Phoenicopterus ruber), Egyptian geese (Alopochen aegyptiacus) belonging to order Anseriformes, and ibis (Guara rubra) belonging to order Ciconiiformes. The isolation was done from postmortem materials in three cases of severe respiratory disease with high mortality. The isolates were examined serologically and identified as belonging to the serotype 3 of avian paramyxoviruses (APMV-3). The isolates were more close antigenically to the APMV-3b variety (prototype strain--APMV-3/Parakeet/Netherlands/449/75) than to the APMV-3a variety (prototype strain--APMV-3/Turkey/Wisconsin/68). This is the first isolation of APMV-3 from birds belonging to the orders Anseriformes and Ciconiiformes.

Isolation of avian serotype 3 paramyxoviruses from imported caged birds in Israel.

Ten avian serotype 3 paramyxoviruses were isolated for the first time in Israel from passerine and psittacine imported caged birds. The birds were submitted for investigation of an illness characterized by nonspecific signs of weakness, anorexia, vomiting, and sneezing. In addition, only the parakeets developed specific neurologic signs. In bacteriologic and pathologic investigation, cachexia and diarrhea were observed in both groups of birds. In psittacines, considerable alterations were observed in lungs, liver, and spleen. Some nonviral pathogens were occasionally isolated. The isolates appeared to belong to serotype 3b avian paramyxovirus (APMV), the prototype strain of which is APMV-3b/parakeet/Netherlands/449/75. The isolation of APMV-3 viruses from imported caged birds may represent a way of introduction of these viruses into the country.

Isolation and characterization of the gene encoding the type 5 mouse (Mus musculus) somatostatin receptor (msst5).

We have isolated and determined the nucleotide sequence of the gene for the fifth mouse somatostatin receptor (msst5). The gene can encode a protein of 363 amino acid residues (aa). The deduced aa sequence of msst5 has 97 and 81% identity to the rat and human sst5 respectively, while it has lower identities with the four other mouse sst(n)s (msst1 -- 48%, msst2 -- 55%, msst3 -- 56%, and msst4 -- 52%). We show that msst5 is expressed in brain but not in liver, heart, spleen, or kidney of the adult mouse.

Lactation and pregnancy effects on blood flow to mammary and reproductive systems in heat-stressed rabbits.

This study used radioactive microspheres to examine blood flow distribution in the mammary and reproductive systems of hyperthermic (+1 degrees C), anesthetized laboratory rabbits at different stages of pregnancy and lactation. Ovarian, cervical and oviductal blood flows decreased by 20-30% during heat stress while vulval blood flow rose by 40%, irrespective of pregnancy and/or lactation status. Mammary blood flow was unaltered during heat stress at most pregnancy and/or lactation stages, with the exception of a 35% decrease in non-pregnant rabbits in early lactation. Uterine blood flow in non-pregnant rabbits in early and peak lactation decreased by 42% and rose by 33%, respectively. Uterine blood flow response to heat stress in pregnant animals varied among tissues: no changes occurred in the flow to implantation sites (early pregnancy) or to inter-embryonic segments (mid- to late pregnancy); that to gestation sacs decreased by 12-40% at the different lactation stages; and that to maternal placentas decreased in the lactating state by 18%, and rose in the non-lactating state by 50%. Results indicate that pregnancy and lactation modulate vasomotor responses to heat stress in mammary and reproductive tissues, and that the extent of the modulation depends upon their respective stages.

The effect of acetylsalicylic acid and cold stress on the susceptibility of broilers to the ascites syndrome.

Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) inhibits the in vitro formation of many cyclooxygenases, some of which in mammals regulate pulmonary vasoconstriction. Pulmonary vasoconstriction occurs in some species subsequent to hypoxaemia, through the mediation of cyclooxygenases. If this effect also is manifested in broilers, ASA might have a therapeutic potential in ameliorating the pulmonary hypertension syndrome (clinically manifested as the ascites syndrome) induced by, amongst other factors, exposure to low ambient temperatures. Male broilers were fed pellets containing 500 parts/10(6) of ASA from 3 weeks of age. After 1 week, ASA-treated and control (no ASA) groups were moved to a cold environment for 4 weeks. The development of the ascites syndrome was monitored by recording haematocrit and mortality with ascites. The plasma levels of two cyclooxygenases, the prostaglandins PGE2 and PGF2alpha, were measured in birds in the cold-exposed groups. No differences in haematocrit values, overall mortality or plasma prostaglandins levels were noted between the ASA-treated and control groups during the period of cold exposure. There was an increased mortality in the ASA-treated groups during weeks 3 to 4 of cold exposure, indicating possible inhibition of a cyclooxygenase vasodilator, which could exacerbate a possible existing pulmonary vasoconstriction. The protocol of this field trial does not indicate that ASA might be of therapeutic use in preventing the ascites syndrome in broilers.

Sex differences in blood flow distribution of normothermic and heat-stressed rabbits.

Sex differences in blood flow (BF) distribution of male and female mature laboratory rabbits were determined in normothermic and heat-stressed states. Animals were anesthetized with alpha-chloralose, and BF distribution was determined by radioactive microspheres in the thermoneutral state and then again during hyperthermia after 2 h of heat exposure. Cardiac output did not change in either sex during heat stress. BF to the toe and ear skin and to nasal turbinates was lower in females than in males, whereas that to the diaphragm, sternum, intercostal muscles, spleen, and skeletal muscles was higher in females. A thermal state-by-sex interaction was detected in several organs, indicating that during heat stress in males, BF is significantly higher than in the controls, whereas in females a decline, no change, or only a slight increase was recorded. Males did not exhibit any decrease in inner organ BF during heat stress, whereas females did. Results show sex differences in BF distributions under normothermia and hyperthermia, suggesting that males and females differ in their BF regulation in both peripheral organs, which are active in heat dissipation, and inner body organs.

Percutaneous exposure to ethyl parathion in a feral Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus).

A feral Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) was found with tremors, weakness, digit and wing flexion, and an inability to fly. A zero blood cholinesterase activity and a favorable response to treatment with pralidoxime hydrochloride indicated exposure to an anticholinergic pesticide. The bird died after 7 d, and traces of the organophosphate insecticide ethyl parathion were found in the liver and from a blue discolored skin area of the neck. Continuous exposure to ethyl parathion through dermal absorption was presumed the cause of death of the vulture.

Efficacy of norfloxacin nicotinate treatment of broiler breeders against Haemophilus paragallinarum.

The efficacy of the antimicrobial drug norfloxacin for treating infectious coryza was examined in 26-week-old male broiler breeders. Chickens were inoculated in the infraorbital sinus with the causal organism, Haemophilus paragallinarum. Four experimental groups were set up: control uninfected chickens, infected untreated chickens, and infected chickens treated for 5 days with either 20 mg norfloxacin/kg body weight or 40 mg norfloxacin/kg body weight. The first clinical signs were seen 24 hr postinfection. Of the observed clinical signs, sinus edema was ameliorated by the treatment, and the percentage of birds presenting sinus edema, sneezing, and increased lacrimation was significantly reduced after treatment. Clinical signs disappeared rapidly and were gone by the second day of treatment. The other signs disappeared gradually over 2 weeks after treatment began. There were no significant differences between the two dosage levels. H. paragallinarum was not reisolated from the infected infraorbital sinuses of birds treated with the higher dose of the drug, whereas the reisolation rate was 17% from those treated with the lower dose and 86% from the infected untreated birds.

A paralytic-like disease of the ostrich (Struthio camelus masaicus) associated with Clostridium chauvoei infection.

Two adult Masai ostriches in a zoological collection became recumbent. The birds could not raise the neck or the head, had difficulties in breathing, and died eight and 13 days, respectively, after the first clinical signs appeared. On post mortem examination the heart had a globous appearance accompanied by gelatinous atrophy. The lungs were hyperaemic and oedematic, while the intestines had prominent haemorrhages in their mucosa. The liver and kidney were enlarged, and the former had also necrotic foci. Smears taken from the hyperaemic regions of the intestines and the necrotic foci of the liver were positive to Clostridium chauvoei after staining with specific fluorescein-labelled antiserum. No other pathogenic agents were identified or isolated from these birds. This report appears to be the first of a pathogenic condition associated with C chauvoei in an avian species.