Effects of high-intensity exercise and protein supplement on muscle mass in ADL dependent older people with and without malnutrition: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Loss of muscle mass is common among old people living in institutions but trials that evaluate interventions aimed at increasing the muscle mass are lacking. Objective, participants and intervention: This randomized controlled trial was performed to evaluate the effect of a high-intensity functional exercise program and a timed protein-enriched drink on muscle mass in 177 people aged 65 to 99 with severe physical or cognitive impairments, and living in residential care facilities. DESIGN: Three-month high-intensity exercise was compared with a control activity and a protein-enriched drink was compared with a placebo drink. A bioelectrical impedance spectrometer (BIS) was used in the evaluation. The amount of muscle mass and body weight (BW) were followed-up at three and six months and analyzed in a 2 x 2 factorial ANCOVA, using the intention to treat principle, and controlling for baseline values. RESULTS: At 3-month follow-up there were no differences in muscle mass and BW between the exercise and the control group or between the protein and the placebo group. No interaction effects were seen between the exercise and nutritional intervention. Long-term negative effects on muscle mass and BW was seen in the exercise group at the 6-month follow-up. CONCLUSION: A three month high-intensity functional exercise program did not increase the amount of muscle mass and an intake of a protein-enriched drink immediately after the exercise did not induce any additional effect on muscle mass. There were negative long-term effects on muscle mass and BW, indicating that it is probably necessary to compensate for an increased energy demand when offering a high-intensity exercise program.

Changes in step-width during dual-task walking predicts falls.

The aim was to evaluate whether gait pattern changes between single- and dual-task conditions were associated with risk of falling in older people. Dual-task cost (DTC) of 230 community living, physically independent people, 75 years or older, was determined with an electronic walkway. Participants were followed up each month for 1 year to record falls. Mean and variability measures of gait characteristics for 5 dual-task conditions were compared to single-task walking for each participant. Almost half (48%) of the participants fell at least once during follow-up. Risk of falling increased in individuals where DTC for performing a subtraction task demonstrated change in mean step-width compared to single-task walking. Risk of falling decreased in individuals where DTC for carrying a cup and saucer demonstrated change compared to single-task walking in mean step-width, mean step-time, and step-length variability. Degree of change in gait characteristics related to a change in risk of falling differed between measures. Prognostic guidance for fall risk was found for the above DTCs in mean step-width with a negative likelihood ratio of 0.5 and a positive likelihood ratio of 2.3, respectively. Findings suggest that changes in step-width, step-time, and step-length with dual tasking may be related to future risk of falling. Depending on the nature of the second task, DTC may indicate either an increased risk of falling, or a protective strategy to avoid falling.

Do dual tasks have an added value over single tasks for balance assessment in fall prevention programs? A mini-review.

BACKGROUND: The Prevention of Falls Network Europe (ProFaNE) aims to bring together European researchers and clinicians to focus on the development of effective falls prevention programs for older people. One of the objectives is to identify suitable balance assessment tools. Assessment procedures that combine a balance task with a cognitive task may be relevant since part of all falls occurs during dual-task performance of walking or other balance activities. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether dual-task balance assessments are more sensitive than single balance tasks in predicting falls and detecting changes in balance performance after fall interventions. METHODS: A systematic literature search was performed in the databases PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, AMED, PsycINFO and Cochrane. Articles were selected according to the following inclusion criteria: (1) population: older adults (mean age > or =65 years), (2) assessment tool: dual task combining gait or other balance task with a cognitive task, (3) design: prospective or retrospective data collection of falls, or intervention study. Analysis of papers focused on measures of predictive ability or sensitivity-to-change for both tasks during dual-task performance as well as for the single balance and cognitive task. RESULTS: Out of 114 dual-task studies in older people, 19 articles matched the inclusion criteria. Fourteen studies had sample sizes of 60 subjects or less; the studied populations, task combinations as well as other methodological aspects varied. None of the articles reported the same statistical measures for both tasks during dual-task performance as well as single balance and cognitive task. In two studies with prospective data collection of falls, higher odds ratios were found for the dual compared to the single balance task. CONCLUSIONS: Upon the available literature, conclusions for an added value of dual balance tasks for fall prediction or assessing fall intervention effects cannot be made due to incomplete comparisons of single and dual balance tasks. Nevertheless, two studies do provide an indication that dual balance tasks may have added value for fall prediction.

Predisposing and precipitating factors for falls among older people in residential care.

Falls and their consequences are serious health problems among older populations. To study predisposing and precipitating factors for falls among older people in residential care we used a cross-sectional study design with a prospective follow up for falls. Fifty-eight women and 25 men, with a mean age of 79.6 y, were included and prospectively followed up regarding falls for a period of 1 y after baseline assessments. All those who fell were assessed regarding factors that might have precipitated the fall. The incidence rate was 2.29 falls/person years. Antidepressants (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, SSRIs), impaired vision and being unable to use stairs without assistance were independently associated with being a 'faller'. Twenty-eight (53.8%) of the fallers suffered injuries as a result of their falls, including 21 fractures. Twenty-seven percent of the falls were judged to be precipitated by an acute illness or disease and 8.6% by a side effect of a drug. Acute symptoms of diseases or drug side effects were associated with 58% of the falls which resulted in fractures. We conclude that SSRIs seem to constitute one important factor that predisposes older people to fall, once or repeatedly. Since acute illnesses and drug side-effects were important precipitating factors, falls should be regarded as a possible symptom of disease or a side-effect of a drug until it is proven otherwise.

The Mobility Interaction Fall chart.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate a screening tool for the identification of older people living in residential care facilities who are prone to falling. METHOD: Two tests focusing on attentional demands while walking were performed: 'Stops walking when talking' and the 'diffTUG'. Medical assessment, rating for cognition, depression and activities of daily living were also carried out. Falls indoors were followed up prospectively over a period of six months. A flowchart, the Mobility Interaction Fall (MIF) chart, for the identification of older people who are prone to falling was developed. The MIF chart includes an observation of mobility level and 'Stops walking when talking', the diffTUG, a test of vision and a rating of concentration. Study subjects were 78 residents, aged over 65 years, in one residential care facility (22 M; 56 F; median age 82 years, range 66-99 years) in Umeå, Sweden. RESULTS: Thirty-three (42%) subjects suffered at least one fall indoors during the follow-up period. The rate of falls differed significantly between those subjects classified as being at risk of falls and those not so classified (log rank test 39.1; p < 0.001; hazard ratio 12.1; 95% CI 4.6-31.8). The positive predictive value for the classification was 78% (95% CI 67-87%) and the negative predictive value was 88% (95% CI 79-95%). CONCLUSION: The initial findings for the MIF chart indicate a promising way of classifying older people at residential care facilities as being at high or low risk of falling. The classification is quick and easy and requires no expensive equipment.

Attention, frailty, and falls: the effect of a manual task on basic mobility.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of a second task on balance and gait maneuvers used in everyday life. Our hypothesis was that those who were more distracted by a familiar manual task performed concurrently with functional maneuvers were more frail and more prone to falls. DESIGN: A cross-sectional design with prospective follow-up for falls. SETTING: Sheltered accommodation in Umeå, Sweden. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-two residents (30 women, 12 men; mean age +/- SD = 79.7 +/- 6.1 years), ambulant with or without a walking aid, able to follow simple instructions and able to carry a tumbler. MEASUREMENTS: Timed Up & Go (TUG), i.e., the time taken to rise from an armchair, walk 3 meters, turn round, and sit down again. TUG was repeated with an added manual task (TUGmanual), which was to carry a glass of water while walking. The Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale, Barthel Index, Functional Reach, Mini-Mental State Examination, and Line Bisection test were used to assess for frailty. The subjects were followed-up prospectively regarding falls indoors for a period of 6-months. RESULTS: Subjects with a time difference (diffTUG) between TUGmanual and TUG of > or = 4.5 seconds were considered to be distracted by the second task. Ten subjects had a difference in time of > or = 4.5 seconds. These subjects were more frail, and seven of them fell indoors during the follow-up period (odds ratio 4.7, 95%Confidence Interval (CI) 1.5-14.2). CONCLUSION: The time difference between the TUGmanual and the TUG appears to be a valid marker of frailty and a useful tool for identifying older persons prone to falling.