Mortalidad materna y atención del parto bajo el modelo centinela. Estudio de caso / Maternal mortality and delivery care under the sentinel model. Case study

Resumen: Objetivo: Evaluar la cobertura de atención del parto eutócico en Unidad Centinela (UC), de primer nivel de atención. Verificar el cumplimento de lo establecido en el modelo e identificar los factores que impiden o favorecen su uso, desde la perspectiva de los prestadores de salud y de las usuarias. Materiales y métodos: Estudio con un componente cuantitativo y uno cualitativo, retrospectivo, con información de bases primarias y secundarias. Variable principal: Atención del parto eutócico, Análisis: Descriptivo, porcentajes para variables categóricas y promedios δ para variables continuas, diferencias estadísticas entre dos variables categóricas, Chi2 de Pearson. Multivariado: Regresión logística de factores asociados a la atención del parto. Se realizaron 12 entrevistas semiestructuradas a usuarias y 8 prestadores de servicios, el análisis se realizó con base en la Teoría Fundamentada a través de Ethnograph v.5. Resultados: Muestra: 218 usuarias, edad promedio fue 24.7 años. La UC proporcionó control prenatal, el 61% más de 5 consultas; sin embargo, la atención de partos eutócicos solamente fue de 17 partos (33.4%). Las barreras más importantes referidas por las usuarias y prestadores de salud fueron: falta de personal, capacitación, insumos, apoyo insuficiente y protección legal institucional en caso de complicaciones. Conclusiones: La UC es una estrategia para regresar la atención de partos al primer nivel de atención, pero es necesario implementar un plan de mejora y fortalecimiento de los proveedores.

Abstract: Objective: Evaluate the coverage of eutocic delivery care in the Sentinel Unit (UC), of the first level of care, verify compliance with what is established in the model and identify the factors that prevent or favor its use, from the perspective of the providers of health and users. Materials and methods: Qualitative and quantitative study, retrospective with information on the primary and secondary bases. Main variable: care of eutocic delivery. Analysis: Descriptive, percentages for categorical variables and δ means for continuous variables, statistical differences between two categorical variables, Pearson Chi2. Multivariate: logistic regression of factors associated with delivery care. Twelve semi-structured interviews were conducted with users and 8 service providers, the analysis was carried out based on Grounded Theory through Ethnograph v.5. Results: Sample: 218 users, average age was 24.7 years. The UC provided prenatal control, 61% more than 5 consultations; however, the care of eutocic deliveries was only 17 deliveries (33.4%). The most important barriers referred to by the users and health providers were: lack of personnel, training, supplies and insufficient support and institutional legal protection in case of complications. Conclusions: UC is a strategy to return delivery care to the first level of care, but it is necessary to implement a plan to improve and strengthen providers.

A Window Into Mental Health: Developing and Pilot-Testing a Mental Health Promotion Intervention for Mexican Immigrants Through the Ventanilla de Salud Program.

Background: Mexican immigrants in the United States face mental health challenges, disparities, and limited access to healthcare; however, mental health promotion efforts specifically targeting this population have been insufficient. The objective of this study was to develop and test a mental health promotion intervention based on protective mental health factors and coping strategies for Mexican immigrants recruited through a free, consulate-based program in Atlanta. Material and Methods: Working with the Ventanilla de Salud program, we conducted a longitudinal study in three phases: formative research and design, pre-intervention assessment and post-implementation evaluation. The intervention was designed based on the health promotion model and interviews with stakeholders. Qualitative information was collected by semi-structured interviews with participants before and after the intervention. Quantitative outcomes were knowledge about protective factors and coping mechanisms, and psychosocial distress. Differences were assessed using the Wilcoxon non-parametrical test. Intent-to-treat analysis was conducted with all participants who signed the informed consent (carrying last observation forward), and a complete case analysis was conducted with those who attended at least 70% of the sessions and completed the post- implementation evaluation. Results: Twenty-five participants were enrolled in the intervention. Mean age was 38 years, and the majority were women. Only nine participants attended at least 70% of the sessions and completed the final evaluation. Men, those who did not complete high school, and workers in service or construction jobs were more likely to drop out. Knowledge about protective factors [pre- vs. post-intervention median (inter-quartile range) = 111 (100, 120) vs. 115 (100, 124)] and coping mechanisms [96 (85, 104) vs. 99 (90, 110)], as well as psychosocial distress [3 (2, 3) vs. 2 (2, 3)] improved after the intervention in both intent-to treat and complete case analyses (p < 0.05). Qualitative results also support improvements in targeted protective factors. Discussion: The intervention was successful in improving psychological distress among Mexican immigrants. These results support the implementation of evidence-based mental health promotion interventions among Mexican immigrants via free and familiar programs. A limitation was the high attrition; future studies should explore approaches to improve retention in this population.

Promoting fruit, vegetable and simple water consumption among mothers and teachers of preschool children: An Intervention Mapping initiative.

For preschool children, mothers and teachers are the principal models and promoters of fruit, vegetable and simple water consumption at home and school, respectively. However, the daily intake of these food and drink items falls below recommended standards among Mexican adults, posing a high risk of non-communicable diseases such as overweight and obesity across all age groups in the country. The objective of this article is to describe the design, implementation and evaluation of an educational initiative conducted in a Mexican locality with the aim of promoting the consumption of fruits, vegetables (FVs) and simple water (SW) among preschoolers through the influence of their mothers and teachers. We used the Intervention Mapping methodology with qualitative and quantitative components. Mothers attended eight theoretical and practical sessions and two school meetings, while teachers were offered two workshops. Our results revealed positive changes among both groups: participants took greater interest in healthy nutrition, increased their purchase, preparation and intake of FVs and SW and promoted their consumption. This confirms that it is possible to achieve favorable changes in eating habits among those who participate in educational initiatives in Mexico.

[Health inequality among vulnerable groups in Mexico: older adults, indigenous people, and migrants]. / La desigualdad en salud de grupos vulnerables de México: adultos mayores, indígenas y migrantes.

Health vulnerability refers to a lack of protection for specific population groups with specific health problems, as well as the disadvantages they face in solving them in comparison with other population groups. This major public health problem has multiple and diverse causes, including a shortage of trained health care personnel and the lack of family, social, economic, and institutional support in obtaining care and minimizing health risks. Health vulnerability is a dynamic condition arising from the confluence of multiple social determinants. This article attempts to describe the health situation of three vulnerable groups in Mexico-older adults, indigenous people, and migrants-and, after defining the needs of each, explore measures that could contribute to the design and implementation of public health policies better tailored to their respective needs.

La desigualdad en salud de grupos vulnerables de México: adultos mayores, indígenas y migrantes / Health inequality among vulnerable groups in Mexico: older adults, indigenous people, and migrants

La vulnerabilidad en salud se refiere a la falta de protección de grupos poblacionales específicos que presentan problemas de salud particulares, así como a las desventajas que enfrentan para resolverlos, en comparación con otros grupos de población. Las causas de este importante problema de salud pública son muchas y de diversa índole, incluidas la insuficiencia de personal de salud capacitado y la falta de apoyo familiar, social, económico e institucional para obtener atención y minimizar los riesgos de salud. La vulnerabilidad en salud es una condición dinámica que resulta de la conjunción de varios determinantes sociales. En el presente trabajo se busca describir la situación de salud de tres grupos vulnerables (GV) de México -adultos mayores, indígenas y migrantes- y analizar las medidas que podrían contribuir al diseño e implementación de políticas públicas de salud más acordes a sus necesidades, partiendo de reconocer e identificar las necesidades propias de cada GV.

Health vulnerability refers to a lack of protection for specific population groups with specific health problems, as well as the disadvantages they face in solving them in comparison with other population groups. This major public health problem has multiple and diverse causes, including a shortage of trained health care personnel and the lack of family, social, economic, and institutional support in obtaining care and minimizing health risks. Health vulnerability is a dynamic condition arising from the confluence of multiple social determinants. This article attempts to describe the health situation of three vulnerable groups in Mexico-older adults, indigenous people, and migrants-and, after defining the needs of each, explore measures that could contribute to the design and implementation of public health policies better tailored to their respective needs.

Individual and community effectiveness of a cervical cancer screening program for semi-urban Mexican women.

The effectiveness at the individual and community level of an educational intervention to increase cervical cancer screening self-efficacy among semi-urban Mexican women was evaluated and changes in reported community barriers were measured after the intervention was implemented. The educational intervention was evaluated with a quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test design and a control group, based on the Integrative Model of Behavior Prediction and AMIGAS project materials. For the intervention group, increased self-efficacy increased requests to obtain a Pap (p < 0.05). Barriers to obtaining a Pap were embarrassment and lack of time at the individual level, and lack of time, test conditions and fear of social rejection in the community's cultural domain. At both the individual and community levels, having more information about the test and knowing it would be performed by a woman were primary facilitators. Few women used medically precise information when referring to the Pap and cervical uterine cancer. Although the level of self-efficacy of the participants increased, barriers in the health system affect the women's perceived ability to get a Pap. Better care for users is needed to increase consistent use of the test. The study shows the importance of using culturally adapted, multilevel, comprehensive interventions to achieve successful results in target populations.

Effect of households' social networks on lice infestation among vulnerable Mexican children: a qualitative comparative analysis.

The prevalence of pediculosis is high among elementary and secondary school children, which favors the belief that infestation occurs more often in schools than in homes. This study explored the role of households' social networks in the transmission of head lice. Seventeen school children and their social networks (n = 22) from Acatlipa (Morelos, Mexico) participated in a prospective observational study during school vacation. The hair of all the school children was washed with shampoo containing permethrin at the beginning of the study and the incidence of pediculosis (O) was evaluated at the beginning of the school term (follow-up at 1.5 months). The sets included in the qualitative comparative analysis were sex (S), length of hair (H), baseline diagnostic of pediculosis (I) and degree (D) and infestation index (N) obtained through the analysis of social networks. The prevalence of pediculosis was the same at the beginning and the end of follow-up (17.6%). The degree of the school children's networks ranged between 2 and 14. There were 8 configurations, the most frequent being F*i*d*n*h. The most parsimonious configuration associated with the incidence of pediculosis was F*I*d*H (female, previous infestation, low degree and long hair), with a coverage of 0.344 and a consistency of 0.941. Indicators of social networks made it possible to identify the role of households' social networks in the transmission of lice. Individual actions such as the use of shampoo containing insecticides are temporary and, therefore, structural actions should be favored.

Social network analysis to evaluate nursing interventions to improve self-care.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the impact of an educational intervention for self-care of elders on their knowledge of acute respiratory infections and its incidence within their social networks. METHOD: The intervention was based on seven educational sessions with elders from Jiutepec (Morelos, Mexico) conducted between September 2009 and January 2010 in the context of the influenza A(H1N1) pandemic. Egocentric social network analysis was used to explore the transmission of knowledge within elders' networks. RESULTS: Knowledge of the correct use of antibiotics increased (p < .05). The total network was composed of 94 individuals, of which 22 presented with respiratory infection during the 4.5 months of follow-up. The measurements of infected individuals were in a degree similar to those not infected (p > .05). No differences in incidence were observed with respect to gender, kinship or sub-networks. DISCUSSION: Elders increased their self-care and knowledge, but this did not decrease the incidence of cases in their social networks. This may be due to isolation and lack of recognition and credibility among close friends and relatives. Social network analysis can be used to understand and evaluate nursing self-care interventions.

[Gender and work: the experience of providers of health services to indigenous women from Guerrero y Oaxaca]. / Género y trabajo: experiencia de las prestadoras de las casas de salud de mujeres indígenas de Guerrero y Oaxaca.

The scope of this paper was to identify the role of gender for women as workers, through the perception and discourse of health service providers at the 'Health Centers for Indigenous Women' ("Casas de Salud de las Mujeres Indígenas") in Ometepec, Guerrero and Matías Romero, Oaxaca, Mexico. It is a qualitative study, based on a secondary analysis of the interviews conducted as part of the "Rescatando la experiencia de la Casa de la Mujer Indígena: sistematización y evaluación del proceso" project. A strong sense of the value of work and a strong commitment towards the community were identified. Guilt appears as the result of tension between work outside the home and the responsibilities as mothers and wives. The possibility of helping other women is a source of gratification that dissipates these conflicts; prestige and recognition are added to the benefits of their role. The labor experience of female workers in the "Casas de Salud de las Mujeres Indígenas" of Matías Romero, Oaxaca and Ometepec, Guerrero, described in this paper, reveals that it has very specific characteristics, which are difficult to replicate in other regions of the country. In future studies it is necessary to consider the different contexts of vulnerability.

Género y trabajo: experiencia de las prestadoras de las casas de salud de mujeres indígenas de Guerrero y Oaxaca / Gender and work: the experience of providers of health services

OBJETIVO: Identificar, a través del discurso de prestadoras de servicio de las Casas de Salud de las Mujeres Indígenas de México en Ometepec, Guerrero y Matías Romero, Oaxaca, el papel de género en el desempeño de su rol como trabajadoras. METODOLOGÍA: Estudio cualitativo, basado en un análisis secundario de las entrevistas realizadas como parte del proyecto "Rescatando la experiencia de la Casa de la Mujer Indígena: sistematización y evaluación del proceso". RESULTADOS: Se identificó un importante valor al trabajo y compromiso hacia la comunidad. La culpa aparece como producto de la tensión entre el trabajo fuera del hogar y las responsabilidades como madres y esposas. La posibilidad de ayudar a otras mujeres es fuente de gratificación que disipa estos conflictos; el prestigio y el reconocimiento se suman a las ganancias de su rol. CONCLUSIONES: La experiencia laboral de las mujeres trabajadoras en la "casa de la mujer indígena" de Matías Romero, Oaxaca, y Ometepec, Guerrero, descrita en este trabajo muestra que tiene características muy específicas de difícil replicación en otras regiones del país. En estudios futuros es necesario considerar los diferentes contextos de vulnerabilidad.

The scope of this paper was to identify the role of gender for women as workers, through the perception and discourse of health service providers at the 'Health Centers for Indigenous Women' ("Casas de Salud de las Mujeres Indígenas") in Ometepec, Guerrero and Matías Romero, Oaxaca, Mexico. It is a qualitative study, based on a secondary analysis of the interviews conducted as part of the "Rescatando la experiencia de la Casa de la Mujer Indígena: sistematización y evaluación del proceso" project. A strong sense of the value of work and a strong commitment towards the community were identified. Guilt appears as the result of tension between work outside the home and the responsibilities as mothers and wives. The possibility of helping other women is a source of gratification that dissipates these conflicts; prestige and recognition are added to the benefits of their role. The labor experience of female workers in the "Casas de Salud de las Mujeres Indígenas" of Matías Romero, Oaxaca and Ometepec, Guerrero, described in this paper, reveals that it has very specific characteristics, which are difficult to replicate in other regions of the country. In future studies it is necessary to consider the different contexts of vulnerability.

[Social support and living conditions in poor elderly people in urban Mexico]. / Apoyo social y condiciones de vida de adultos mayores que viven en la pobreza urbana en México.

The aim of this paper was to analyze social support and living conditions among poor elderly people in Mexican cities. A qualitative study with eight focus groups was carried out in Guadalajara, Cuernavaca, Chilpancingo, and Culiacan, Mexico, in 2005. Forty men and 63 women participated in the study. The main support for the elderly in daily living came from their immediate family and in some cases from neighbors. Social support was basically material and economic, in addition to providing company and transportation for medical appointments. Daily emotional support, companionship, and social inclusion were minimal or absent. The study identified a significant lack of support from government and religious or civil society organizations. The family is still the main source of support for the elderly. Increased government collaboration is dramatically needed to combat the misconception that the needs of the elderly are the individual family's responsibility rather than a collaborative effort by society.

Apoyo social y condiciones de vida de adultos mayores que viven en la pobreza urbana en México / Social support and living conditions in poor elderly people in urban Mexico

The aim of this paper was to analyze social support and living conditions among poor elderly people in Mexican cities. A qualitative study with eight focus groups was carried out in Guadalajara, Cuernavaca, Chilpancingo, and Culiacan, Mexico, in 2005. Forty men and 63 women participated in the study. The main support for the elderly in daily living came from their immediate family and in some cases from neighbors. Social support was basically material and economic, in addition to providing company and transportation for medical appointments. Daily emotional support, companionship, and social inclusion were minimal or absent. The study identified a significant lack of support from government and religious or civil society organizations. The family is still the main source of support for the elderly. Increased government collaboration is dramatically needed to combat the misconception that the needs of the elderly are the individual family's responsibility rather than a collaborative effort by society.

El objetivo del artículo fue analizar el apoyo social y las condiciones de vida de adultos mayores en zonas urbanas empobrecidas. Estudio cualitativo con 8 grupos focales, realizado en Guerrero, Jalisco, Morelos y Sinaloa, México, durante 2005-2006. Participaron 40 varones y 63 mujeres. El principal apoyo para la vida cotidiana y la condición de salud de los adultos mayores proviene de los familiares cercanos, en algunos casos de vecinos. Los apoyos de los adultos mayores son básicamente materiales y económicos, así como cierto tipo de acompañamiento y traslado a consultas médicas. El apoyo emocional es mínimo o inexistente, igual la compañía cotidiana y la integración en la vida familiar. Se identificó una ausencia significativa de apoyo por parte del gobierno o de organizaciones religiosas o civiles. La familia continúa siendo la fuente fundamental de apoyo. Es necesario incrementar las acciones gubernamentales para la población adulta mayor y transformar la idea de que las necesidades de esta población es una responsabilidad individual más que colectiva.

[Health services in the Mixteca: use and conditions of affiliation in US-migrant and non-migrant households]. / Servicios de salud en la Mixteca: utilización y condición de afiliación en hogares de migrantes y no-migrantes a EU.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of households in the Mixteca Baja and analyze differences in affiliation with health care programs and utilization, among members of households with migrants (HogMig) and without migrants (HogNoMig) to the United States. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional, descriptive survey was used with heads of households in a representative sample from the Mixteca Baja of 702 homes with and without migrants to the US. RESULTS: Members of HogMig had more personal and economic resources than those of HogNoMig; they also regularly received remittances. The majority of members of both HogMig and HogNoMig did not receive benefits from the Oportunidades program or health coverage through Seguro Popular, IMSS or ISSSTE. In general, while they used the local health clinic, they often preferred to pay for private practitioners. A small proportion of those covered by IMSS or ISSSTE reported very low utilization of the health services offered by those institutions.

Servicios de salud en la Mixteca: utilización y condición de afiliación en hogares de migrantes y no-migrantes a EU / Health services in the Mixteca: use and conditions of affiliation in US-migrant and non-migrant households

Objetivo. Caracterizar a los hogares de la Mixteca baja en términos socioeconómicos y demográficos y analizar las diferencias entre miembros de hogares de migrantes (HogMig) y no migrantes (HogNoMig) a Estados Unidos en torno a su afiliación y utilización de servicios de salud. Material y métodos. Estudio transversal y descriptivo en el que se realizaron encuestas a jefes de familia de una muestra representativa de 702 hogares de la Mixteca baja con (HogMig) y sin miembros migrantes (HogNoMig) a EU. Resultados. Los integrantes de los HogMig tenían más recursos personales y económicos que los HogNoMig; además recibían remesas regularmente. La mayoría de los miembros de ambos tipos de hogares no recibía beneficios del Programa Oportunidades, ni contaba con afiliación al Seguro Popular, IMSS o ISSSTE. Generalmente utilizaban el centro de salud local, aunque frecuentemente preferían pagar médicos privados. La minoría derechohabiente (IMSS/ ISSSTE) reportó una muy baja utilización de esos servicios.

Objective. To describe the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of households in the Mixteca Baja and analyze differences in affiliation with health care programs and utilization, among members of households with migrants (HogMig) and without migrants (HogNoMig) to the United States. Material and Methods. A cross-sectional, descriptive survey was used with heads of households in a representative sample from the Mixteca Baja of 702 homes with and without migrants to the US. Results. Members of HogMig had more personal and economic resources than those of HogNoMig; they also regularly received remittances. The majority of members of both HogMig and HogNoMig did not receive benefits from the Oportunidades program or health coverage through Seguro Popular, IMSS or ISSSTE. In general, while they used the local health clinic, they often preferred to pay for private practitioners. A small proportion of those covered by IMSS or ISSSTE reported very low utilization of the health services offered by those institutions.

La capacidad de las Organizaciones de la Sociedad Civil para mejorar la calidad de vida de los adultos mayores: un estudio cualitativo en zonas urbanas empobrecidas de México / The capacity of Civil Society Organizations to improve the quality of life of the elderly: a qualitative study in impoverished urban areas of Mexico

Recientemente en México se ha incrementado la proporción de adultos mayores (AM) y de Organizaciones de la Sociedad Civil (OSC) que ayudan a los pobres. Nuestro objetivo fue analizar la capacidad que tienen las OSC de implementar acciones para mejorar la calidad de vida de los AM pobres de zonas urbanas. En 2005 se realizaron 14 entrevistas al personal de diez OSC que trabajaban en colonias pobres de cuatro ciudades de México. La guía de entrevista y el análisis se basaron en la estructura interna y el contexto externo que afecta la capacidad de las OSC. Entre los principales logros se destacan una mayor participación y autogestión de la gente y el número de acciones realizadas para mejorar la calidad de vida de las personas. Los principales obstáculos identificados son una demanda poblacional que supera la capacidad de respuesta de las OSC, una población objetivo que generalmente no son los AM y un financiamiento insuficiente. La atención proporcionada por las OSC a los AM, aunque trascendental, es escasa, por tanto es necesario promover una cultura de prevención e interés en los AM y de apoyo a las OSC.

Recently, the proportion of elderly people (EP) has increased considerably in Mexico, as well as the number of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) dedicated to helping poor people. Our objective was to analyze the capacity of the CSOs to implement actions in order to improve the quality of life of the poor EP in urban areas. In 2005, fourteen interviews were conducted with personnel of ten CSOs who worked in poor zones of four Mexican cities. The interview guide and the analysis were based on the internal structure and the external context that affect CSO's capacity. Within the main achievements, we identified an the increase in the participation and self-management of people and in the number of actions carried out in order to improve quality of people's life. The main obstacles identified were: the CSOs responsiveness, which is always lower than the population demands; their target population is not only EP; and insufficient financing. The attention provided by CSOs to EP is scarce, but essential. It is necessary to promote a culture of prevention and interest in the EP, and support to CSOs.

[Aging experiences in rural Mexico]. / Experiencias de envejecimiento en el México rural.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the aging experience among men and women older than 60 years, living in rural areas from the states of Guerrero and Morelos, Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A qualitative study was conducted in poverty-stricken, underserved communities with less than 2,500 inhabitants. Semi-structured interviews were applied to collect data. RESULTS: The aging experience is different according to gender, being more positive for women. Loneliness, together with social networks and the health-illness process, make the difference in the aging experiences. The main fears associated with aging are loneliness, illness, poverty, and loss of independence. CONCLUSIONS: Gender identity plays a central role in different aging experiences because the chances for development and accompanying responsibilities foster the inequality between men and women. It is necessary to improve institutional responses tailored to the specific needs of this population.

Experiencias de envejecimiento en el México rural / Aging experiences in rural Mexico

OBJETIVO: Explorar la experiencia de envejecimiento de hombres y mujeres mayores de 60 años, que viven en contextos rurales de pobreza en los estados de Guerrero y Morelos, México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se diseñó un estudio cualitativo basado en entrevistas semiestructuradas. Se trabajó en comunidades con menos de 2 500 habitantes, pobres y de alta marginación. RESULTADOS: La experiencia de envejecimiento es radicalmente diferente según la condición de género; esta vivencia resulta ser más positiva para las mujeres. La soledad es un factor que configura la experiencia diferencial del envejecimiento, así como las redes sociales y el estado de salud-enfermedad. Los principales temores asociados a la vejez fueron la soledad, la enfermedad, la pobreza y la pérdida de independencia. CONCLUSIONES: La identidad de género desempeña un papel fundamental en la configuración de la experiencia diferencial del proceso de envejecimiento, debido a que las oportunidades de desarrollo y las responsabilidades que se derivan de ella, promueven la desigualdad entre los sexos. Es necesario hacer más eficiente la respuesta institucional, de manera que responda a las necesidades específicas de esta población.

[Gender based violence: knowledge and attitudes of health care providers in Nicaragua]. / Violencia de género: actitud y conocimiento del personal de salud de Nicaragua.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the knowledge and attitudes of health care personnel towards the identification and referral of gender-based violence victims (GBV). Also, to identify barriers to identification and referral of GBV, and to assess the levels of knowledge about Norms and Procedures for Intra-Family Violence Care by the health care personnel of the Nicaraguan's Minister of Health (MINSA, for its initials in Spanish). MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among healthcare professionals, including physicians, nurses and nursing technical aides (n=213), in 5 of the 17 Local Systems of Integral Attention (SILAIS) from the Integral Program of Attention for Women, Children and Adolescence (AIMNA) in the primary level of attention in MINSA, from April to June 2003. Attitude was measured with a Likert scale and an awareness index was created for intra-family violence care guidelines. The information was obtained using a self-administered instrument, based on the questionnaire of the study made among the personnel of the Mexican Institute for Social Security (IMSS, for its initials in Spanish), Morelos, Mexico. A logistic regression model was used to evaluate the association between attitude and several factors, as well as with the knowledge of care guidelines. RESULTS: In our population, 76.06% showed an attitude opposing GBV. In the multivariate analysis, the factors associated with opposition to GBV were: medical profession (OR 6.5, 95%CI 2.70-15.82), having a middle (OR 4.3, 95%CI 1.87-10.26) or high level (OR 3.3, 95%CI 1.03-10.75) of knowledge about intra-family violence guidelines and the closeness to relatives or friends who were victims of gender violence (OR 3.2, 95%CI 1.56-6.80). The lack of training on the subject (59.9%), fear of getting involved in legal issues (52.6%), and the concept that violence is a private affair and not a social one (50.7%), constituted the most important barriers to providing medical care. CONCLUSIONS: The health care personnel generally were observed to have high values in regard to an attitude of rejection towards GBV. However, we found barriers that show persisting traditional beliefs, such as considering violence to be a personal issue. Therefore, in order, to ensure a substantial improvement, better training about this subject is needed in medical school curricula with an emphasis on the gender perspective. The finding of the present study will allow improvements in health care reforms at the first level of care in the health sector in Nicaragua.

Violencia de género: actitud y conocimiento del personal de salud de Nicaragua / Gender based violence: knowledge and attitudes of health care providers in Nicaragua

OBJETIVO: Determinar la actitud del personal de salud en la identificación y la referencia de las víctimas de violencia de género (VG), así como los factores relacionados con dicha actitud. Asimismo, conocer las barreras para tal identificación y referencia, y evaluar el nivel de conocimiento sobre las Normas y Procedimientos para la Atención de la Violencia Intrafamiliar entre el personal de salud del Ministerio de Salud de Nicaragua (MINSA). MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio transversal entre el personal de salud de 5 de los 17 Sistemas Locales de Atención Integral en Salud (SILAIS) de Nicaragua: médicos, enfermeras y auxiliares de enfermería (n=213) del Programa de Atención Integral a la Mujer, Niñez y Adolescencia en el primer nivel de atención del MINSA, durante los meses de abril a junio de 2003. La actitud se midió de acuerdo con una escala tipo Likert y se construyó un índice de conocimiento sobre las normas de atención. La información se obtuvo por medio de un instrumento de autoaplicación, basado en el cuestionario de un estudio que se realizó entre el personal del Instituto Mexicano de Seguro Social (IMSS) de Morelos, México. Se utilizó un modelo de regresión logística para evaluar la asociación de la actitud con diversos factores, así como con el conocimiento sobre las normas de atención. RESULTADOS: La actitud de rechazo hacia la VG fue de 76.06 por ciento. En el análisis multivariado, los factores asociados con la actitud de rechazo fueron la profesión médica (RM 6.5, IC 95 por ciento 2.70-15.82), al igual que los niveles medio (RM 4.3, IC 95 por ciento 1.87-10.26) y alto (RM 3.3, IC 95 por ciento 1.03-10.75) de conocimiento sobre las normas de atención y la cercanía de familiares o amigos que han sido víctimas de violencia (RM 3.2, IC 95 por ciento 1.56-6.80). La escasa capacitación sobre el tema (59.9 por ciento), el temor a involucrarse en asuntos legales (52.6 por ciento) y el carácter privado de la violencia (50.7 por ciento) constituyen las barreras más importantes para la identificación y la referencia de las víctimas. CONCLUSIONES: En general, el personal de salud presentó valores altos en la actitud de rechazo hacia la VG. Sin embargo, se identificaron barreras que indican la persistencia de creencias tradicionales como la de considerar el problema de la violencia un asunto privado...