Is Camphor the Future in Supporting Therapy for Skin Infections?

The aim of this review is to present the potential application of camphor-a bicyclic monoterpene ketone-in the prevention of skin infections. Skin diseases represent a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by prolonged symptoms that significantly diminish the quality of life. They affect the dermis, the epidermis, and even subcutaneous tissue. They very often have a bacterial or fungal background. Therapy for dermatological skin disorders is difficult and long-term. Therefore, it is important to find a compound, preferably of natural origin, that (i) prevents the initiation of this infection and (ii) supports the skin's repair process. Based on its documented anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-acne, anesthetic, strengthening, and warming properties, camphor can be used as a preventative measure in dermatological infectious diseases and as a component in medical and cosmetic products. This work discusses the structure and physicochemical properties of camphor, its occurrence, and methods of obtaining it from natural sources as well as through chemical synthesis. The use of camphor in industrial preparations is also presented. Additionally, after a detailed review of the literature, the metabolism of camphor, its interactions with other medicinal substances, and its antimicrobial properties against bacteria and fungi involved in skin diseases are discussed with regard to their resistance.

New Hydroxylactones and Chloro-Hydroxylactones Obtained by Biotransformation of Bicyclic Halolactones and Their Antibacterial Activity.

The aim of this study was to obtain new halolactones with a gem-dimethyl group in the cyclohexane ring (at the C-3 or C-5 carbon) and a methyl group in the lactone ring and then subject them to biotransformations using filamentous fungi. Halolactones in the form of mixtures of two diasteroisomers were subjected to screening biotransformations, which showed that only compounds with a gem-dimethyl group located at the C-5 carbon were transformed. Strains from the genus Fusarium carried out hydrolytic dehalogenation, while strains from the genus Absidia carried out hydroxylation of the C-7 carbon. Both substrates and biotransformation products were then tested for antimicrobial activity against multidrug-resistant strains of both bacteria and yeast-like fungi. The highest antifungal activity against C. dubliniensis and C. albicans strains was obtained for compound 5b, while antimicrobial activity against S. aureus MRSA was obtained for compound 4a.

Carvacrol-A Natural Phenolic Compound with Antimicrobial Properties.

The main purpose of this article is to present the latest research related to selected biological properties of carvacrol, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity. As a monoterpenoid phenol, carvacrol is a component of many essential oils and is usually found in plants together with its isomer, thymol. Carvacrol, either alone or in combination with other compounds, has a strong antimicrobial effect on many different strains of bacteria and fungi that are dangerous to humans or can cause significant losses in the economy. Carvacrol also exerts strong anti-inflammatory properties by preventing the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids by inducing SOD, GPx, GR, and CAT, as well as reducing the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the body. It also affects the body's immune response generated by LPS. Carvacrol is considered a safe compound despite the limited amount of data on its metabolism in humans. This review also discusses the biotransformations of carvacrol, because the knowledge of the possible degradation pathways of this compound may help to minimize the risk of environmental contamination with phenolic compounds.

Natural Compounds in the Battle against Microorganisms-Linalool.

The purpose of this article is to present recent studies on the antimicrobial properties of linalool, the mechanism of action on cells and detoxification processes. The current trend of employing compounds present in essential oils to support antibiotic therapy is becoming increasingly popular. Naturally occurring monoterpene constituents of essential oils are undergoing detailed studies to understand their detailed effects on the human body, both independently and in doses correlated with currently used pharmaceuticals. One such compound is linalool, which is commonly found in many herbs and is used to flavor black tea. This compound is an excellent fragrance additive for cosmetics, enhancing the preservative effect of the formulations used in them or acting as an anti-inflammatory on mild skin lesions. Previous studies have shown that it is extremely important due to its broad spectrum of biological activities, i.e., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, cardioprotective and antimicrobial. Among opportunistic hospital strains, it is most active against Gram-negative bacteria. The mechanism of action of linalool against microorganisms is still under intensive investigation. One of the key aspects of linalool research is biotransformation, through which its susceptibility to detoxification processes is determined.

Can Antioxidants Reduce the Toxicity of Bisphenol?

BPA is still the subject of extensive research due to its widespread use, despite its significant toxicity resulting not only from its negative impact on the endocrine system but also from disrupting the organism's oxidative homeostasis. At the molecular level, bisphenol A (BPA) causes an increased production of ROS and hence a change in the redox balance, mitochondrial dysfunction, and modulation of cell signaling pathways. Importantly, these changes accumulate in animals and humans, and BPA toxicity may be aggravated by poor diet, metabolic disorders, and coexisting diseases. Accordingly, approaches using antioxidants to counteract the negative effects of BPA are being considered. The preliminary results that are described in this paper are promising, however, it should be emphasized that further studies are required to determine the optimal dosage and treatment regimen to counteract BPA toxicity. It also seems necessary to have a more holistic approach showing, on the one hand, the influence of BPA on the overall human metabolism and, on the other hand, the influence of antioxidants in doses that are acceptable with the diet on BPA toxicity. This is due in part to the fact that in many cases, the positive effect of antioxidants in in vitro studies is not confirmed by clinical studies. For this reason, further research into the molecular mechanisms of BPA activity is also recommended.

Can Eucalyptol Replace Antibiotics?

One of the primary reasons for the search for new antimicrobial agents is the increasing and spreading resistance of microorganisms to previously used drugs. This is particularly important in the case of rapidly progressing infections that require the rapid administration of an appropriately selected antibiotic. However, along with the administration of antibiotics, complications in the disease-weakened body may arise in the form of systemic mycoses, viral infections, and protozoan infections. Therefore, there is an increasing interest among researchers focusing on the use of naturally occurring terpenic compounds in stand-alone or combined therapies with antibiotics. In this publication, the aim of our work is to present the results of a literature review on the antimicrobial activity of eucalyptol.

Transformations of Monoterpenes with the p-Menthane Skeleton in the Enzymatic System of Bacteria, Fungi and Insects.

The main objective of this article was to present the possibilities of using the enzymatic system of microorganisms and insects to transform small molecules, such as monoterpenes. The most important advantage of this type of reaction is the possibility of obtaining derivatives that are not possible to obtain with standard methods of organic synthesis or are very expensive to obtain. The interest of industrial centers focuses mainly on obtaining particles of high optical purity, which have the desired biological properties. The cost of obtaining such a compound and the elimination of toxic or undesirable chemical waste is important. Enzymatic reactions based on enzymes alone or whole microorganisms enable obtaining products with a specific structure and purity in accordance with the rules of Green Chemistry.

Antimicrobial chloro-hydroxylactones derived from the biotransformation of bicyclic halolactones by cultures of Pleurotus ostreatus.

The aim of this research was to test the ability of cultures of edible fungi to biotransform three bicyclic halolactones. The substrates (2-chloro-, 2-bromo- and 2-iodo-4,4,6,7-tetramethyl-9-oxabicyclo[4.3.0]nonan-8-one) received by means of synthesis were transformed by oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus and edible mushrooms of the genus Armillaria mellea, Marasmius scorodonius and Laetiporus sulfureus. The substrates were converted to hydroxyl derivatives only by the cultures of oyster mushroom. Out of seven strains of Pleurotus ostreatus - three were capable of hydroxylation of all substrates with the most effective conversion of chlorolactone. Bromo- and iodolactone were transformed to a small extent. Four new chloro-hydroxylactones were obtained as biotransformation products. The structures of substrates and products were established on the basis of spectroscopic data. Studies of antimicrobial activity performed on reference strains of pathogenic microorganisms showed that halolactones caused complete inhibition of growth of A. alternata and F. linii strains. On the other hand, chloro-hydroxylactones were able to completely inhibit the growth of A. alternata and F. linii strains and also C. albicans strain.

One Hundred Faces of Geraniol.

Geraniol is a monoterpenic alcohol with a pleasant rose-like aroma, known as an important ingredient in many essential oils, and is used commercially as a fragrance compound in cosmetic and household products. However, geraniol has a number of biological activities, such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In addition, numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have shown the activity of geraniol against prostate, bowel, liver, kidney and skin cancer. It can induce apoptosis and increase the expression of proapoptotic proteins. The synergy of this with other drugs may further increase the range of chemotherapeutic agents. The antibacterial activity of this compound was also observed on respiratory pathogens, skin and food-derived strains. This review discusses some of the most important uses of geraniol.

Plant-Mediated Enantioselective Transformation of Indan-1-one and Indan-1-ol. Part 2.

The main purpose of this publication was to obtain the S-enantiomer of indan-1-ol with high enantiomeric excess and satisfactory yield. In our research, we used carrot callus cultures (Daucus carota L.), whereby the enzymatic system reduced indan-1-one and oxidized indan-1-ol. During the reaction of reduction, after five days, we received over 50% conversion, with the enantiomeric excess of the formed S-alcohol above 99%. In turn, during the oxidation of racemic indan-1-ol after 15 days, 36.7% of alcohol with an enantiomeric excess 57.4% S(+) remained in the reaction mixture. In addition, our research confirmed that the reactions of reduction and oxidation are competing reactions during the transformation of indan-1-ol and indan-1-one in carrot callus cultures.

Mushrooms of the Genus Ganoderma Used to Treat Diabetes and Insulin Resistance.

Pharmacotherapy using natural substances can be currently regarded as a very promising future alternative to conventional therapy of diabetes mellitus, especially in the case of chronic disease when the body is no longer able to produce adequate insulin or when it cannot use the produced insulin effectively. This minireview summarizes the perspectives, recent advances, and major challenges of medicinal mushrooms from Ganoderma genus with reference to their antidiabetic activity. The most active ingredients of those mushrooms are polysaccharides and triterpenoids. We hope this review can offer some theoretical basis and inspiration for the mechanism study of the bioactivity of those compounds.

Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents-Myth or Real Alternative?

Herbs and the essential oils derived from them have been used from the beginning of human history for different purposes. Their beneficial properties have been applied to mask unpleasant odors, attract the attention of other people, add flavor and aroma properties to prepared dishes, perfumes, and cosmetics, etc. Herbs and essential oils (EOs) have also been used in medicine because of their biological properties, such as larvicidal action, analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, antioxidant, fungicide, and antitumor activities, and many more. Many EOs exhibit antimicrobial properties, which is extremely important in fields of science and industry, such as medicine, agriculture, or cosmetology. Among the 250 EOs which are commercially available, about a dozen possess high antimicrobial potential. According to available papers and patents, EOs seem to be a potential alternative to synthetic compounds, especially because of the resistance that has been increasingly developed by pathogenic microorganisms. In this review we summarize the latest research studies about the most-active EOs that are known and used because of their antimicrobial properties. Finally, it is noteworthy that the antimicrobial activities of EOs are not preeminent for all strains. Further investigations should, thus, focus on targeting EOs and microorganisms.

An Overview of Synthetic Methods for the Preparation of Halolactones.

Halolactones are used both in chemical synthesis as intermediates as well as in various industries. These compounds may be secondary metabolites of living organisms, although they are mainly obtained by chemical synthesis. The substrates for the synthesis of chloro-, bromo- and iodolactones are often unsaturated carboxylic acids, and sometimes they are unsaturated esters. The article presents a number of different methods for the production of halolactones, both racemic mixtures and enantiomerically enriched compounds.

Biotransformation of α-Acetylbutyrolactone in Rhodotorula Strains.

Due to its structural similarity, the α'-1'-hydroxyethyl-γ-butyrolactone obtained by reduction of (±)-α-acetyl-γ-butyrolactone may have a similar function in the body to γ-butyrolactone (GBL). In the work presented, biotransformation of α-acetyl-γ-butyrolactone by three Rhodotorula strains was performed obtaining enantiomerically enriched alcohol. The process was carried out in growing and resting cultures. We studied how both media composition and organic solvent volume affected stereoselectivity and effectiveness of biotransformation. After 2 h, the enantiomerically pure (3R, 1'S)-α'-1'-hydroxyethyl-γ-butyrolactone was obtained using the R. marina AM77 strain in YPG (Yeast extract-Peptone-Glucose) medium enriched with 5% glycerol. To our best knowledge there is no previous information in the literature about the (±)-α-acetyl-γ-butyrolactone biotransformation performed in medium with addition of organic and deep eutectic solvents.

Salt mine microorganisms used for the biotransformation of chlorolactones.

The aim of the project was to find new catalysts capable of chlorolactone biotransformation. Three bicyclic chlorolactones with structures possessing one or two methyl groups in their cyclohexane ring were subjected to screening biotransformation using seven bacterial strains and one fungal strain from a salt mine. Three strains of bacteria (Micrococcus luteus Pb10, Micrococcus luteus WSP45, Gordonia alkanivorans Pd25) and one fungal strain (Aspergillus sydowii KGJ10) were able to catalyse hydrolytic dehalogenation of one substrate. The classification of the strains that were effective biocatalysts was confirmed by 16S rDNA analysis. The best result (76%) was obtained using Aspergillus sydowii KGJ10. All strains catalysed hydrolytic dehalogenation without changing the conformation. The equatorial position of the chlorine atom in the substrate turned out to be warrant of the positive result of the biotransformation process.

Synthesis and Biotransformation of Bicyclic Unsaturated Lactones with Three or Four Methyl Groups.

The aim of this study was to obtain new unsaturated lactones by chemical synthesis and their microbial transformations using fungal strains. Some of these strains were able to transform unsaturated lactones into different hydroxy or epoxy derivatives. Strains of Syncephalastrum racemosum and Absidia cylindrospora gave products with a hydroxy group introduced into a tertiary carbon, while the Penicillium vermiculatum strain hydroxylated primary carbons. The Syncephalastrum racemosum strain hydroxylated both substrates in an allylic position. Using the Absidia cylindrospora and Penicillium vermiculatum strains led to the obtained epoxylactones. The structures of all lactones were established on the basis of spectroscopic data.

Influence of structure of lactones with the methylcyclohexene and dimethylcyclohexene ring on their biotransformation and antimicrobial activity.

The aim of this article is influence of the structure of lactones with the methylcyclohexene and dimethylcyclohexene ring on their biotransformation and antimicrobial activity. This work was based on the general remark that even the smallest change in the structure of a compound can affect its biological properties. The results of the biotransformation of four bicyclic unsaturated lactones with one or two methyl groups in the cyclohexene ring was tested using fifteen fungal strains (Fusarium species, Penicillium species, Absidia species, Cunninghamella japonica, and Pleurotus ostreatus) and five yeast strains (Yarrowia lipolytica, Rhodorula marina, Rhodorula rubra, Candida viswanathii, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae). During these transformations, new epoxylactone and hydroxylactone were obtained. The relationship between the substrate structure and the ability of the microorganisms to transform them were analysed. Only compounds with C-O bond of lactone ring in the equatorial position were transformed by fungus. All presented here lactones were examined also for their antimicrobial activity. It turned out that these compounds exhibited growth inhibition of bacteria and fungi, mainly Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, and Penicillium expansum.

Biotransformation of Bicyclic Halolactones with a Methyl Group in the Cyclohexane Ring into Hydroxylactones and Their Biological Activity.

The aim of this study was the chemical synthesis of a series of halo- and unsaturated lactones, as well as their microbial transformation products. Finally some of their biological activities were assessed. Three bicyclic halolactones with a methyl group in the cyclohexane ring were obtained from the corresponding γ,δ-unsaturated ester during a two-step synthesis. These lactones were subjected to screening biotransformation using twenty two fungal strains. These strains were tested on their ability to transform halolactones into new hydroxylactones. Among the six strains able to catalyze hydrolytic dehalogenation, only two (Fusarium equiseti, AM22 and Yarrowia lipolytica, AM71) gave a product in a high yield. Moreover, one strain (Penicillium wermiculatum, AM30) introduced the hydroxy group on the cyclohexane ring without removing the halogen atom. The biological activity of five of the obtained lactones was tested. Some of these compounds exhibited growth inhibition against bacteria, yeasts and fungi and deterrent activity against peach-potato aphid.

A Macrosphelide as the Unexpected Product of a Pleurotus ostreatus Strain-Mediated Biotransformation of Halolactones Containing the gem-Dimethylcyclohexane Ring. Part 1.

The aim of the study was to obtain new compounds during biotransformation of two halocompounds, the δ-bromo and δ-iodo-γ-bicyclolactones 1 and 2. Unexpectedly Pleurotus ostreatus produced together with the hydroxylactone, 2-hydroxy-4,4-dimethyl-9-oxabicyclo[4.3.0]nonane-8-one (3), its own metabolite (3S,9S,15S)-(6E,12E)-3,9,15-trimethyl-4,10,16-trioxacyclohexa-deca-6,12-diene-1,5,8,11,14-pentaone (4). The method presented here, in which this macrosphelide 4 was obtained by biotransformation, has not been previously described in the literature. To the best of our knowledge, this compound has been prepared only by chemical synthesis to date. This is the first report on the possibility of the biosynthesis of this compound by the Pleurotus ostreatus strain. The conditions and factors, like temperature, salts, organic solvents, affecting the production of this macrosphelide by Pleurotus ostreatus strain were examined. The highest yield of macroshphelide production was noticed for halolactones, as well with iodide, bromide, iron and copper (2+) ions as inductors.

Isoxanthohumol--Biologically active hop flavonoid.

Isoxanthohumol (IXN), apart from xanthohumol (XN) and 8-prenylnaringenin (8PN), is one of the most important prenylflavonoids found in hops. Another natural source of this compound is a shrub Sophora flavescens, used in traditional Chinese medicine. Main dietary source of IXN is beer, and the compound is produced from XN during wort boiling. In the human body, the compound is O-demethylated to 8PN, the strongest known phytoestrogen. This process takes place in the liver and in the intestine, where it is mediated by local microflora. It has been reported in some studies that even though beer contains small amounts of hops and its preparations, these compounds may affect the functioning of the human body. IXN exhibits an antiproliferative activity against human cell lines typical for breast cancer (MCF-7), ovarian cancer (A-2780), prostate cancer (DU145 and PC-3), and colon cancer (HT-29 and SW620) cells. It strongly inhibits the activation of the following carcinogens: 2-amino-3-methylimidazol-[4,5-f]quinoline and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) via human cytochrome P450 (CYP1A2). It also inhibits the production of prostate specific antigen (PSA). IXN significantly reduces the expression of transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) in the case of invasive breast cancer MDA-MB-231. It interferes with JAK/STAT signaling pathway and inhibits the expression of pro1inflammatory genes in the monoblastic leukemia cell line (MonoMac6). It activates apoptosis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs). In addition, IXN shows an antiviral activity towards herpes viruses (HSV1 and HSV2) and bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV).