The Ongoing Relationship Between Offspring Congenital Heart Disease and Preeclampsia Across Pregnancies.

Background: Prior literature has described an association between preeclampsia and offspring congenital heart disease (CHD), while suggesting there may be a stronger relationship in individuals with early preeclampsia. Objectives: The authors sought to explore the relationship between offspring CHD and preeclampsia among pregnancies in a population-based study. Methods: Retrospective cohort study all singleton pregnancies delivered in the state of California 2000 to 2012. We included singleton births with gestational ages of 23 to 42 weeks and excluded pregnancies complicated by pre-existing diabetes or identified fetal chromosomal anomalies. We used multivariable logistic regression to estimate ORs for associations between offspring CHD and preeclampsia. Further subanalyses examined the relationships in deliveries <34 weeks and >34 weeks to analyze if there was a difference according to timing of preeclampsia development. Results: Preeclampsia was strongly associated with offspring CHD (aOR: 1.38; 99% CI: 1.29-1.49) in the same pregnancy. Among patients with preeclampsia in the index pregnancy, there was an increased risk of fetal CHD in the subsequent pregnancy (aOR: 1.39; 99% CI: 1.20-1.61). Among patients with offspring CHD in the index pregnancy, there was an increased risk of preeclampsia in the subsequent pregnancy (aOR: 1.39; 99% CI: 1.15-1.68). In all 3 analyses, results remained significant when stratified by <34 weeks and ≥34 weeks. Conclusions: Our findings suggest a need for further investigation into the etiology of preeclampsia and its relationship to embryologic development of cardiovascular structures.

The Evolving Role of Genetic Evaluation in the Prenatal Diagnosis and Management of Congenital Heart Disease.

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is increasingly diagnosed prenatally and the ability to screen and diagnose the genetic factors involved in CHD have greatly improved. The presence of a genetic abnormality in the setting of prenatally diagnosed CHD impacts prenatal counseling and ensures that families and providers have as much information as possible surrounding perinatal management and what to expect in the future. This review will discuss the genetic evaluation that can occur prior to birth, what different genetic testing methods are available, and what to think about in the setting of various CHD diagnoses.

Homogenous access to fetal cardiac care in a heterogeneous state.

BACKGROUND: Timely prenatal diagnosis of CHD allows families to participate in complex decisions and plan for the care of their child. This study sought to investigate whether timing of initial fetal echocardiogram and the characteristics of fetal counselling were impacted by parental socio-economic factors. METHODS: Retrospective chart review of fetal cardiac patients from 1 January, 2017 to 31 December, 2018. We reviewed gestational age at first fetal echo, maternal age and ethnicity, zip code, rurality index, and hospital distance. Counselling was evaluated based on documentation regarding use of interpreter, time billed for counselling, and treatment option chosen. RESULTS: Total of 139 maternal-fetal dyads were included, and 29 dyads had single-ventricle heart disease. There was no difference in income, hospital distance or rurality index, and first fetal echo timing. There was no significant difference between maternal ethnicity and maternal age, gestational age at initial visit, or follow-up. Patients in rural areas had increased counselling time (p < .05). There was no difference between socio-economic factors and ultimate parental choices (termination, palliative delivery, or cardiac interventions). CONCLUSION: Oregon comprises a heterogeneous population from a large geographical catchment. While prenatal counselling and family decision-making are multifaceted, we demonstrated that dyads were referred from across the state and received care in a uniformly timely manner, and once at our centre received consistent counselling despite differences in parental socio-economic factors.

Perinatal Stressors and Consequences for Neonates with Critical Congenital Heart Disease.

INTRODUCTION: The prenatal diagnosis of congenital heart disease (CHD) is a traumatic event that can cause expectant parents to experience anxiety, depression, and toxic stress. Prenatal exposure to stress may impact neonatal postoperative outcomes. In addition, expectant parents may have other psychosocial stressors that may compound maternal stress. We investigated the relationship between stress in pregnancies complicated by prenatally diagnosed CHD and their neonatal outcomes. METHODS: A pilot retrospective cohort study of pregnancies with prenatally diagnosed critical CHD (2019-2021) was performed. The collected data included pregnancy characteristics and neonatal and postoperative outcomes (including the need for exogenous corticosteroid treatment (ECT)). In order to quantify prenatal stressors, a composite prenatal stress score (PSS) was established and utilized. RESULTS: In total, 41 maternal-fetal dyads were evaluated. Thirteen (32%) neonates had single-ventricle anatomy. The need for ECT after CHD surgery was associated with higher pregnant patient PSS (p = 0.01). PSS did not correlate with birthweight, infection, or hypoglycemia in the neonatal period. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal stress is multifactorial; higher PSS is correlates with post-bypass ECT, suggesting that a stressful intrauterine environment may be associated with worse neonatal postoperative outcomes.

Structured Framework for Multidisciplinary Parent Counseling and Medical Interventions for Fetuses and Infants with Trisomy 13 or Trisomy 18.

OBJECTIVE: Trisomy 13 (T13) and 18 (T18) are aneuploidies associated with multiple structural congenital anomalies and high rates of fetal demise and neonatal mortality. Historically, patients with either one of these diagnoses have been treated similarly with exclusive comfort care rather than invasive interventions or intensive care, despite a wide phenotypic variation and substantial variations in survival length. However, surgical interventions have been on the rise in this population in recent years without clearly elucidated selection criterion. Our objective was to create a standardized approach to counseling expectant persons and parents of newborns with T13/T18 in order to provide collaborative and consistent counseling and thoughtful approach to interventions such as surgery. STUDY DESIGN: This article describes our process and presents our resulting clinical care guideline. RESULTS: We formed a multi- and interdisciplinary committee. We used published literature when available and otherwise expert opinion to develop an approach to care featuring individualized assessment of the patient to estimate qualitative mortality risk and potential to benefit from intensive care and/or surgeries centered within an ethical framework. CONCLUSION: Through multidisciplinary collaboration, we successfully created a patient-centered approach for counseling families facing a diagnosis of T13/T18. Other institutions may use our approach as a model for developing their own standardized approach. KEY POINTS: · Trisomy 13 and trisomy 18 are associated with high but variable morbidity and mortality.. · Research on which patients are most likely to benefit from surgery is lacking.. · We present our institution's framework to counsel families with fetal/neonatal T13/T18..

Prenatal Congenital Heart Disease-It Takes a Multidisciplinary Village.

Prenatal diagnosis of congenital heart disease (CHD) allows for thoughtful multidisciplinary planning about location, timing, and need for medical interventions at birth. We sought to assess the accuracy of our prenatal cardiac diagnosis, and postnatal needs for patients with CHD utilizing a multidisciplinary approach. We performed a retrospective chart review of fetal CHD patients between 1/1/18 and 4/30/19. Maternal and infant charts were reviewed for delivery planning, subspecialty care needs, genetic evaluation, prenatal and postnatal cardiac diagnoses, need for prostaglandin (PGE) and neonatal cardiac intervention. 82 maternal-fetal dyads met inclusion criteria during the study period and delivered at a median of 38w2d gestation. 32 (39%) dyads had CHD and other anomalies or genetic abnormalities. All dyads met with a genetic counselor and neonatologist. 11 patients delivered at outside hospitals as planned (all with isolated CHD not requiring neonatal intervention), and 5 chose a palliative delivery. 30 patients were counseled to expect a neonatal cardiac intervention and 25 (83%) underwent an intervention within the expected time period. No neonates required an uncounseled cardiac intervention. 29 patients planned for PGE at birth and 31 received PGE. Of the 79 postnatal echocardiograms, 60 (76%) were entirely consistent with the fetal diagnosis. A multidisciplinary approach to the prenatal diagnosis of CHD in maternal-fetal dyads is optimal and utilizing this method we were able to accurately predict postnatal physiology and ensure that patients delivered in the correct location with an appropriate supportive structure in place.

Assessment of the mechanism of mitral valve prolapse in children: An echocardiography study.

BACKGROUND: The high complexity of mitral valve anatomy and function in mitral valve prolapse (MVP) is not yet fully understood. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to analyze each part of the mitral valve apparatus in children to determine its impact on the presence of MVP and to assess the interaction between the coaptation length (CL) and mitral regurgitation severity. METHODS: We prospectively analyzed transthoracic echocardiograms of 60 patients with MVP (mean age 9.8 ± 3.1 years). We compared these patients with 60 control patients without disease. We determined length of leaflets, chordal length, tenting area, coaptation CL, the intrapapillary muscle distance (IPMD) and relation between CL and severity of mitral regurgitation (MR). RESULTS: For patients with MVP, the posterior mitral leaflet (PML) was significantly enlarged 13.9 ± 4.1 mm versus 10.7 ± 3.5 mm (p < .01), the primary chordal length was significantly decreased 15.4 ± 3.61 mm versus 17.6 ± 3.8 mm (p < .02), and IPMD was significantly greater 18.1 ± 2.7 mm versus 16.6 ± 4.3 mm (p < .03). The difference between CL for both the anterior and posterior mitral leaflets correlated positively with MR (r = .249, p < .05). A greater than 4 mm CL correlated with at least MR (sensitivity 100%, specificity 72%) and greater than 5 mm correlated with at least moderate MR (sensitivity 100%, specificity 60%). CONCLUSION: The majority of pediatric patients with mitral valve prolapse have structural abnormalities that are defined well by echocardiography. In addition to the presence of prolapse and regurgitation, routine assessment of leaflet length, thickness, chordal length and papillary muscle distance is fundamental for patients with MVP.

Fetal counseling for congenital heart disease: is communication effective?

PURPOSE: To assess the accuracy of maternal understanding of fetal cardiac defects following initial fetal counseling. METHODS: Pregnant women with a fetal diagnosis of congenital heart disease (CHD) were surveyed regarding understanding of their fetus's heart defect. The survey asked: (1) for a description of the heart condition; (2) how confident they were in the diagnosis; (3) whether their fetus would require heart surgery. Two fetal cardiologists evaluated the maternal qualitative description. Partners were excluded from the study. RESULTS: Fifty-one participants consented and 39 completed the survey. Mean age was 31 years, 60% had some college level or post-graduate education, 48% had Medicaid insurance, and 81% were Caucasian. More than three-quarters of participants, stated they had either "quite a bit" or "very much" understanding of their fetus's diagnosis. Maternal assessment matched the physician's assessment of accuracy with 77% (N = 30) demonstrating either "quite a bit" or a "very accurate" description of the diagnosis. All women correctly understood if their fetus would require heart surgery. Highest level of maternal education positively correlated with the accuracy of diagnosis (regression coefficient 0.48, p < .002). However, confidence in the diagnosis was independent of both education (0.30, p = .167) and maternal age (-0.03, p = .234). CONCLUSIONS: Fetal counseling is effective in conveying anatomy and the need for surgery; however, accuracy amongst women with lower levels of education and maternal confidence in understanding can be improved.

Heart Rate Induced Dynamic Coronary Ischemia Secondary to Aortic Valve Insufficiency from a Diminutive Aortic Valve Leaflet: Diagnosis and Repair.

Hemodynamically significant congenital obstruction of the coronary arteries is a rare phenomenon. The potential etiology of these obstructions is variable including coronary os stenosis, occlusive fibrous webs, or a dysplastic aortic valve leaflet resulting in obstruction. In infants, diagnosis of these coronary lesions is often difficult due to the small anatomic size and limitations of imaging modalities in the setting of the underlying rapid heart rates. We present a case of an infant presenting in heart failure secondary to dynamic coronary artery insufficiency from a diminutive aortic valve leaflet and aortic sinus and variable levels of aortic valve insufficiency based on heart rate.

Myocardial Perfusion in Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The status of the systemic right ventricular coronary microcirculation in hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) is largely unknown. It is presumed that the systemic right ventricle's coronary microcirculation exhibits unique pathophysiological characteristics of HLHS in Fontan circulation. The present study sought to quantify myocardial blood flow by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and evaluate the determinants of microvascular coronary dysfunction and myocardial ischemia in HLHS. METHODS: One hundred nineteen HLHS patients (median age, 4.80 years) and 34 healthy volunteers (median age, 5.50 years) underwent follow-up cardiac magnetic resonance imaging ≈1.8 years after total cavopulmonary connection. Right ventricle volumes and function, myocardial perfusion, diffuse fibrosis, and late gadolinium enhancement were assessed in 4 anatomic HLHS subtypes. Myocardial blood flow (MBF) was quantified at rest and during adenosine-induced hyperemia. Coronary conductance was estimated from MBF at rest and catheter-based measurements of mean aortic pressure (n=99). RESULTS: Hyperemic MBF in the systemic ventricle was lower in HLHS compared with controls (1.89±0.57 versus 2.70±0.84 mL/g per min; P<0.001), while MBF at rest normalized by the rate-pressure product, was similar (1.25±0.36 versus 1.19±0.33; P=0.446). Independent risk factors for a reduced hyperemic MBF were an HLHS subtype with mitral stenosis and aortic atresia (P=0.017), late gadolinium enhancement (P=0.042), right ventricular diastolic dysfunction (P=0.005), and increasing age at total cavopulmonary connection (P=0.022). The coronary conductance correlated negatively with systemic blood oxygen saturation (r, -0.29; P=0.02). The frequency of late gadolinium enhancement increased with age at total cavopulmonary connection (P=0.014). CONCLUSIONS: The coronary microcirculation of the systemic ventricle in young HLHS patients shows significant differences compared with controls. These hypothesis-generating findings on HLHS-specific risk factors for microvascular dysfunction suggest a potential benefit from early relief of frank cyanosis by total cavopulmonary connection.

Pulse Oximetry Screening and Critical Congenital Heart Disease in the State of Oregon.

Late diagnosis of critical congenital heart disease (CCHD) is associated with higher levels of morbidity and mortality in neonates. Nearly all states have passed laws mandating universal pulse oximetry screening (POxS) of newborns to improve early detection rates of CCHD. We performed a retrospective chart review of all transthoracic echocardiograms (TTEs) interpreted by our institution on patients between 0 and 30 days of life in the years 2010 (prior to POxS) and 2015 (after POxS). Between 2010 and 2015, the number of neonatal TTEs interpreted by our institution decreased by 18.2%. In 2015, there were 46 neonates diagnosed with CCHD with a 78% prenatal detection rate. There was only one case of a true-positive POxS. Our study demonstrated that the initiation of POxS coincided with a significant decrease in neonatal TTEs, suggesting universal POxS may impart reassurance to primary providers leading to a decrease in TTE utilization.

Relationship between patient understanding and timeliness of penicillin prophylaxis in rheumatic heart disease prevention programmes in American Samoa.

AIM: While mostly eradicated in developed nations, rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is still the leading cause of preventable cardiovascular disease in children. RHD and its antecedent acute rheumatic fever remain endemic in many low to middle income countries, as well as in vulnerable communities in wealthy ones. Evidence-based interventions are particularly important in resource-poor settings. We sought to determine if efforts directed at patient and family education impact degree of participation in community-based prevention measures, and with short-term disease progression. METHODS: We performed an observational, cross-sectional study of children with RHD aged 5-19 years, along with their parents, in American Samoa. A survey was administered in November 2016 to assess patient and parent knowledge of RHD. Scores were compared to percent timeliness of penicillin prophylaxis via chart review. RESULTS: We collected a total of 70 surveys of child-parent dyads with a patient mean age of 14.28 years ±2.71. An increased knowledge score was predictive of increased penicillin compliance for both children (12.70% increase in compliance per 1-unit increase in score (P = 0.0004)) and parents (10.10% increase in compliance per 1-unit increase in score (P = 0.0012)). CONCLUSIONS: A clear relationship exists between patient and parent knowledge of RHD and timeliness of penicillin prophylaxis doses. This study was the first to link patient understanding of RHD to engagement with preventative measures.

The Utility of Echocardiography in Pediatric Patients with Structurally Normal Hearts and Suspected Endocarditis.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the utility of transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) in children with structurally normal hearts suspected of having infective endocarditis (IE). We hypothesized that the diagnostic yield of TTE is minimal in low-risk patients with normal hearts. We performed a retrospective chart review of TTEs performed for concern for endocarditis at a pediatric tertiary care referral center in Portland, Oregon. Three hundred patients met inclusion criteria (< 21 years old, completed TTE for IE from 2005 to 2015, no history of congenital heart disease or endocarditis). We recorded findings that met the modified Duke criteria (MDC) including fever, positive blood culture, and vascular/immunologic findings; presence of a central line; whether or not patients were diagnosed with IE clinically; and if any changes to antibiotic regimens were made based on TTE. Ten patients (3%) had echocardiograms consistent with IE. When compared to the clinical diagnosis of IE, the positive predictive value (PPV) of one positive blood culture without other major/minor MDC was 0. Similarly, the PPV of two positive blood cultures without other major/minor criteria was 0.071. Patients should be evaluated using the MDC to assess the clinical probability of IE prior to performing a TTE. Patients with a low probability for IE should not undergo TTE as it has a low diagnostic yield and patients are unlikely to be diagnosed with disease.

Cerebrovascular blood flow in patients with tetralogy of fallot: prediction for early surgical intervention.

OBJECTIVES: Children with tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) require initial intervention at varying times reflecting a spectrum of obstruction to pulmonary blood flow. In utero, fetal patients with right sided obstructive lesions demonstrate increased middle cerebral artery (MCA) pulsatility index (PI). We sought to determine whether MCA flow patterns are associated with the degree of pulmonary obstruction and the consequential need for early surgical intervention (ESI). METHODS: We performed a multi-center retrospective study evaluating patients with a prenatal diagnosis of TOF. All echocardiographic fetal studies performed from 16 weeks' gestational age through delivery were reviewed between 2001 and 2015 with subsequent postnatal medical chart review. RESULTS: 82 patients met inclusion criteria. Patients who ultimately required ESI (n=30) demonstrated an increased MCA PI z-score (-0.68 vs -1.32, p=0.02) compared to those who did not (n=52). An elevated MCA PI in patients with TOF was associated with ESI after 24 weeks' gestational age (-0.36 vs -1.22, p=0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Fetal patients with TOF demonstrate altered MCA flow that correlates with need for ESI. This effect is blunted earlier in gestation which may reflect cerebral autoregulation. MCA PI may be a beneficial tool in helping determine perinatal management and counseling for patients with TOF.

Determination of right ventricular function with adjusted systolic to diastolic duration ratio after transannular patch repair of tetralogy of Fallot.

BACKGROUND: Early detection of right ventricular dysfunction after transannular patch for tetralogy of Fallot (TOF-TAP) is essential for management. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate echocardiographic metrics of ventricular function correlate with functional MRI measurements, in patients with TOF-TAP. METHODS: A retrospective review of patients with TOF-TAP between 2007 and 2017 who had an echocardiogram and MRI within six months were analyzed. Systolic to diastolic ratio (SD ratio) was measured from the tricuspid regurgitation and adjusted for heart rate. Tricuspid Annular Plane Systolic Excursion (TAPSE), Fractional Area Change (FAC), and shortening fraction (SF) were additionally measured. Echocardiographic measurements were correlated with MRI assessment of right ventricular ejection fraction (RVEF), left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), right ventricular end-diastolic volume index (RVEDi), and right to left ventricle volume ratio (RV/LV). RESULTS: Of the 53 patients (mean age 12.8 years) that met inclusion criteria, 45 (85%) had available TR jets for SD ratio analysis. The HR adjusted SD ratio negatively correlated with RVEF (r = -.359, P = .016), LVEF (r = -.317, P = .038) and positively with RV/LV EDV ratio (r = .347, P = .024). TAPSE, FAC, and SF measurements did not show significant correlation. CONCLUSION: In patients with TOF-TAP, there is a moderate negative correlation between heart rate adjusted SD ratio and MRI metrics of ventricular function, suggesting that decreased filling time is a marker for reduced right ventricular function. The SD ratio may be a useful echocardiographic tool for serial evaluation of in this population.

Echocardiographic Screening of Rheumatic Heart Disease in American Samoa.

While rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is a treatable disease nearly eradicated in the United States, it remains the most common form of acquired heart disease in the developing world. This study used echocardiographic screening to determine the prevalence of RHD in children in American Samoa. Screening took place at a subset of local schools. Private schools were recruited and public schools underwent cluster randomization based on population density. We collected survey information and performed a limited physical examination and echocardiogram using the World Heart Federation protocol for consented school children aged 5-18 years old. Of 2200 students from two private high schools and two public primary schools, 1058 subjects consented and were screened. Overall, 133 (12.9%) children were identified as having either definite (3.5%) or borderline (9.4%) RHD. Of the patients with definitive RHD, 28 subjects had abnormal mitral valves with pathologic regurgitation, three mitral stenosis, three abnormal aortic valves with pathologic regurgitation, and seven borderline mitral and aortic valve disease. Of the subjects with borderline disease, 77 had pathologic mitral regurgitation, 12 pathologic aortic regurgitation, and 7 at least two features of mitral valve disease without pathologic regurgitation or stenosis. Rheumatic heart disease remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The prevalence of RHD in American Samoa (12.9%) is to date the highest reported in the world literature. Echocardiographic screening of school children is feasible, while reliance on murmur and Jones criteria is not helpful in identifying children with RHD.

Routine intra-operative trans-oesophageal echocardiography yields better outcomes in surgical repair of CHD.

OBJECTIVES: Trans-oesophageal echocardiographic imaging is valuable in the pre- and post-operative evaluation of children and adults with CHD; however, the frequency by which trans-oesophageal echocardiography guides the intra-operative course of patients is unknown. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed 1748 intra-operative trans-oesophageal echocardiograms performed between 1 October, 2005 and 31 December, 2010, and found 99 cases (5.7%) that required return to bypass, based in part upon the intra-operative echocardiographic findings. RESULTS: The diagnoses most commonly requiring further repair and subsequent imaging were mitral valve disease (20.9%), tricuspid valve disease (16.0%), atrioventricular canal defects (12.0%), and pulmonary valve disease (14.1%). The vast majority of those requiring immediate return to bypass benefited by avoiding subsequent operations and longer lengths of hospital stay. A total of 14 patients (0.8%) who received routine imaging required further surgical repair within 1 week, usually due to disease that developed over ensuing days. Patients who had second post-operative trans-oesophageal echocardiograms in the operating room rarely required re-operations, confirming the benefit of routine intra-operative imaging. CONCLUSIONS: This study represents a large single institutional review of intra-operative trans-oesophageal echocardiography, and confirms its applicability in the surgical repair of patients with CHD. Routine imaging accurately identifies patients requiring further intervention, does not confer additional risk of mortality or prolonged length of hospital stay, and prevents subsequent operations and associated sequelae in a substantial subset of patients. This study demonstrates the utility of echocardiography in intra-operative monitoring of surgical repair and highlights patients who are most likely to require return to bypass, as well as the co-morbidities of such manipulations.

High flow velocity through congenital cardiac lesions predicts preoperative platelet dysfunction.

BACKGROUND: Platelet dysfunction resulting from abnormal fluid shear stress has been reported in adults with aortic stenosis. Blood flowing through a congenital heart defect at greater than normal velocity is subjected to increased shear stress. The primary aim was to determine whether peak flow velocity through congenital cardiac lesions predicts preoperative platelet dysfunction. METHODS: The charts of 402 patients who underwent cardiopulmonary bypass and had preoperative platelet function analysis were evaluated. Platelet dysfunction was measured as a prolonged closure time (CT) in seconds with a platelet function analyzer. Echocardiography was used to determine peak velocity. The relationship between peak velocity and CT was analyzed using linear regression and Kaplan-Meier estimation. RESULTS: The distribution of peak velocity was bimodal. The mean velocity of the lower group was 1.9 m/second and the higher group was 4.2 m/second. Univariate analysis showed age, weight, peak velocity, hematocrit, and Risk Adjustment for Congenital Heart Surgery score to be associated with prolonged CT. Using multivariable analysis, prolonged CT was significantly associated with peak velocity (p < 0.001). For each 1m/second increase in peak velocity the CT increased by over 9 seconds (p < 0.001). In addition, a median CT increase of more than 6 seconds was also associated with a 5 percentage point drop in hematocrit (p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Platelet dysfunction is associated with high blood flow velocity through congenital cardiac lesions. Lower preoperative hematocrit was associated with prolonged CT, which may suggest subclinical bleeding secondary to platelet dysfunction.