Outdoor airborne allergens: Characterization, behavior and monitoring in Europe.

Aeroallergens or inhalant allergens, are proteins dispersed through the air and have the potential to induce allergic conditions such as rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and asthma. Outdoor aeroallergens are found predominantly in pollen grains and fungal spores, which are allergen carriers. Aeroallergens from pollen and fungi have seasonal emission patterns that correlate with plant pollination and fungal sporulation and are strongly associated with atmospheric weather conditions. They are released when allergen carriers come in contact with the respiratory system, e.g. the nasal mucosa. In addition, due to the rupture of allergen carriers, airborne allergen molecules may be released directly into the air in the form of micronic and submicronic particles (cytoplasmic debris, cell wall fragments, droplets etc.) or adhered onto other airborne particulate matter. Therefore, aeroallergen detection strategies must consider, in addition to the allergen carriers, the allergen molecules themselves. This review article aims to present the current knowledge on inhalant allergens in the outdoor environment, their structure, localization, and factors affecting their production, transformation, release or degradation. In addition, methods for collecting and quantifying aeroallergens are listed and thoroughly discussed. Finally, the knowledge gaps, challenges and implications associated with aeroallergen analysis are described.

Recent Advances in the Detection of Indoor Fungi.

According to reviews carried out by numerous studies from different geographic areas and by several scientific bodies, including the WHO [...].

A temporally and spatially explicit, data-driven estimation of airborne ragweed pollen concentrations across Europe.

Ongoing and future climate change driven expansion of aeroallergen-producing plant species comprise a major human health problem across Europe and elsewhere. There is an urgent need to produce accurate, temporally dynamic maps at the continental level, especially in the context of climate uncertainty. This study aimed to restore missing daily ragweed pollen data sets for Europe, to produce phenological maps of ragweed pollen, resulting in the most complete and detailed high-resolution ragweed pollen concentration maps to date. To achieve this, we have developed two statistical procedures, a Gaussian method (GM) and deep learning (DL) for restoring missing daily ragweed pollen data sets, based on the plant's reproductive and growth (phenological, pollen production and frost-related) characteristics. DL model performances were consistently better for estimating seasonal pollen integrals than those of the GM approach. These are the first published modelled maps using altitude correction and flowering phenology to recover missing pollen information. We created a web page (http://euragweedpollen.gmf.u-szeged.hu/), including daily ragweed pollen concentration data sets of the stations examined and their restored daily data, allowing one to upload newly measured or recovered daily data. Generation of these maps provides a means to track pollen impacts in the context of climatic shifts, identify geographical regions with high pollen exposure, determine areas of future vulnerability, apply spatially-explicit mitigation measures and prioritize management interventions.

Shower thoughts: why scientists should spend more time in the rain.

Stormwater is a vital resource and dynamic driver of terrestrial ecosystem processes. However, processes controlling interactions during and shortly after storms are often poorly seen and poorly sensed when direct observations are substituted with technological ones. We discuss how human observations complement technological ones and the benefits of scientists spending more time in the storm. Human observation can reveal ephemeral storm-related phenomena such as biogeochemical hot moments, organismal responses, and sedimentary processes that can then be explored in greater resolution using sensors and virtual experiments. Storm-related phenomena trigger lasting, oversized impacts on hydrologic and biogeochemical processes, organismal traits or functions, and ecosystem services at all scales. We provide examples of phenomena in forests, across disciplines and scales, that have been overlooked in past research to inspire mindful, holistic observation of ecosystems during storms. We conclude that technological observations alone are insufficient to trace the process complexity and unpredictability of fleeting biogeochemical or ecological events without the shower thoughts produced by scientists' human sensory and cognitive systems during storms.

Potential Allergenicity of Plants Used in Allergological Communication: An Untapped Tool for Prevention.

Plants are often used to illustrate allergy-related medical products, services, patient information materials and news. The illustration of allergenic plants is an important tool in patient education, contributing to the prevention of pollinosis, as patients can recognize plants and avoid pollen exposure. In this study, it is aimed to evaluate the pictorial content of allergy-related websites depicting plants. A total of 562 different photographs depicting plants were collected using image search, identified and categorized according to their potential allergenicity. Of the total 124 plant taxa, 25% of plants were identified to the genus level and a further 68% were identified to the species level. Plants with low allergenicity were found in 85.4% of the pictures, while plants of high allergenicity were shown in only 4.5% of the pictorial information. Brassica napus was the most frequent species identified (8.9% of the overall identified plants), while blooming Prunoidae, Chrysanthemum spp. and Taraxacum officinale were also common. Considering both allergological and design aspects, some plant species have been proposed for more professional and responsible advertising. The internet has the potential to provide visual support for patient education in allergenic plants, but emphasis must be put on the transmission of the correct visual message.

Characterization of Indoor Molds after Ajka Red Mud Spill, Hungary.

A red mud suspension of ~700,000 m3 was accidentally released from the alumina plant in Ajka, Hungary, on the 4th of October 2010, flooding several buildings in the nearby towns. As there is no information in the literature on the effects of red mud on indoor mold growth, we conducted studies to answer the following question: does the heavy metal content of red mud inhibit fungal colonization in flooded houses? In order to gain knowledge on fungal spectra colonizing surfaces soaked with red mud and on the ability of fungi to grow on them, swabs, tape lifts, and air samples were collected from three case study buildings. A total of 43 fungal taxa were detected. The dominant species were Penicillium spp. on plaster/brick walls, but Aspergillus series Versicolores, Cladosporium, Acremonium, and Scopulariopsis spp. were also present. The level of airborne penicillia was high in all indoor samples. Selected fungal strains were subcultured on 2% MEA with 10-1 and 10-4 dilutions of red mud. The growth rate of most of the strains was not significantly reduced by red mud on the artificial media. The consequences of similar industrial flooding on indoor molds are also discussed in this paper.

Survival and growth of microscopic fungi derived from tropical regions under future heat waves in the Pannonian Biogeographical Region.

Warming and heat waves are predicted by different climate models in the near future in the Pannonian Biogeographical Region (PBR). These climatic effects may have impact on the prevalence and distribution of certain fungal species of this area. In this study the effects of predicted climate scenarios were tested on fungi being endemic or unintentionally introduced by global trade from regions of warm temperate climate. Common fungal species were selected for the study and exposed to heat waves during 7 days according to two climate scenarios: one moderately (RCP 4.5, Tavg = 27 °C, Tmax = 35 °C, RH: 100%) and one strongly pessimistic (RCP 8.5, Tavg = 30 °C, Tmax = 40 °C, RH: 100%) that include predictions for the Central Hungarian Region for July 2050. According to our results, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus tubingensis and Fusarium strains introduced from tropical regions tolerated heat waves, unlike Penicillium and Talaromyces spp. and endemic Cladosporium spp. which were unable to grow under the RCP 8.5 treatment. The effects of climate change on fungi raise new issues not only from economic and health perspectives, but also in relation with plant protection and environment. Our results suggest that heat waves driven by climate change promote the colonization and growth of the tested strains of non-native fungi more likely than that of the native ones.

Hagnosa longicapillata, gen. nov., sp. nov., a New Sordariaceous Ascomycete in the Indoor Environment, and the Proposal of Hagnosaceae fam. nov.

Hagnosa longicapillata, gen. nov., sp. nov, is described and illustrated from wooden building materials collected in Hungary and from pure culture. This species has been collected exclusively from indoor environments, where it was quite common. The ascocarps develop in a thick layer of brown, woolly mats of mycelia. The ostiolar region of the perithecia is ornamented with a five-lobed, flower-shaped crown. Asci are four-spored; ascospores are dark brown, smooth, muriform, not constricted at the septa, and liberated mostly through crackings of the thin ascomatal wall. Apparently, ascospores are dispersed by the mechanical disturbance of the mycelial web. In the phylogenetic tree, Hagnosa samples were placed as a basal lineage, independently from the other family of Sordariomycetidae, with high support. To place Hagnosa in Sordariales, the new family, Hagnosaceae, is proposed.

Bioaerosols on the atmospheric super highway: An example of long distance transport of Alternaria spores from the Pannonian Plain to Poland.

Alternaria spores are pathogenic to agricultural crops, and the longest and the most severe sporulation seasons are predominantly recorded in rural areas, e.g. the Pannonian Plain (PP) in South-Central Europe. In Poland (Central Europe), airborne Alternaria spore concentrations peak between July and August. In this study, we test the hypothesis that the PP is the source of Alternaria spores recorded in Poland after the main sporulation season (September-October). Airborne Alternaria spores (2005-2019) were collected using volumetric Hirst spore traps located in 38 locations along the potential pathways of air masses, i.e. from Serbia, Romania and Hungary, through the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Ukraine, to Northern Poland. Three potential episodes of Long Distance Transport (LDT) were selected and characterized in detail, including the analysis of Alternaria spore data, back trajectory analysis, dispersal modelling, and description of local weather and mesoscale synoptic conditions. During selected episodes, increases in Alternaria spore concentrations in Poznan were recorded at unusual times that deviated from the typical diurnal pattern, i.e. at night or during morning hours. Alternaria spore concentrations on the PP were very high (>1000 spores/m3) at that time. The presence of non-local Ambrosia pollen, common to the PP, were also observed in the air. Air mass trajectory analysis and dispersal modelling showed that the northwest part of the PP, north of the Transdanubian Mountains, was the potential source area of Alternaria spores. Our results show that Alternaria spores are transported over long distances from the PP to Poland. These spores may markedly increase local exposure to Alternaria spores in the receptor area and pose a risk to both human and plant health. Alternaria spores followed the same atmospheric route as previously described LDT ragweed pollen, revealing the existence of an atmospheric super highway that transports bioaerosols from the south to the north of Europe.

The influence of air pollution on respiratory allergies, asthma and wheeze in childhood in Hungary.

BACKGROUND: Higher exposure to air pollution may contribute to the increased prevalence of allergic diseases in children. The study investigated the associations between the prevalence of childhood respiratory diseases and long-term exposure to NO2, SO2, PM10, especially some surrogates in schoolchildren in Hungary. We also analyzed the possible modification effects of some confounders by interaction analysis. METHODS: A total of 6771 children aged 8-9-year-old residing at their current addresses since their births with air pollution monitoring stations were selected into this analysis. Health outcomes and their possible determinants, as well as surrogates of air pollution were surveyed by using a standardized questionnaire. Long-term exposure to PM10, NO2, and SO2 was calculated at settlement level derived from daily average concentrations of pollutants. Descriptive and analytical statistical methods were applied. RESULTS: NO2 levels were positively associated with respiratory allergies and asthma. Decreased risk for ragweed, any other pollen, house dust mite and animal fur allergy was detected with PM10 level. There were significant associations between respiratory allergies to ragweed, any other pollen, house dust mite, animal fur, wheeze symptoms and living or attending school nearby a factory, power station or bus station as well as living in a home with intensive noise or vibration. Gender, parental atopy, home mold and early respiratory infection were significant effect modifiers in some cases. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study indicate that respiratory health in children is adversely affected by air pollutants.

Detection of antimicrobial resistance genes in urban air.

To understand antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria, we need to monitor environmental microbes as reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). These bacteria are present in the air and can be investigated with the whole metagenome shotgun sequencing approach. This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of a method for metagenomic analysis of microbial composition and ARGs in the outdoor air. Air samples were collected with a Harvard impactor in the PM10 range at 50 m from a hospital in Budapest. From the DNA yielded from samples of PM10 fraction single-end reads were generated with an Ion Torrent sequencer. During the metagenomic analysis, reads were classified taxonomically. The core bacteriome was defined. Reads were assembled to contigs and the ARG content was analyzed. The dominant genera in the core bacteriome were Bacillus, Acinetobacter, Leclercia and Paenibacillus. Among the identified ARGs best hits were vanRA, Bla1, mphL, Escherichia coli EF-Tu mutants conferring resistance to pulvomycin; BcI, FosB, and mphM. Despite the low DNA content of the samples of PM10 fraction, the number of detected airborne ARGs was surprisingly high.

Chaetomium and Chaetomium-like Species from European Indoor Environments Include Dichotomopilus finlandicus sp. nov.

The genus Chaetomium is a frequently occurring fungal taxon world-wide. Chaetomium and Chaetomium-like species occur in indoor environments, where they can degrade cellulose-based building materials, thereby causing structural damage. Furthermore, several species of this genus may also cause adverse effects on human health. The aims of this research were to identify Chaetomium and Chaetomium-like strains isolated from indoor environments in Hungary and Finland, two geographically distant regions of Europe with drier and wetter continental climates, respectively, and to study their morphological and physiological properties, as well as their extracellular enzyme activities, thereby comparing the Chaetomium and Chaetomium-like species isolated from these two different regions of Europe and their properties. Chaetomium and Chaetomium-like strains were isolated from flats and offices in Hungary, as well as from schools, flats, and offices in Finland. Fragments of the translation elongation factor 1α (tef1α), the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb2) and ß-tubulin (tub2) genes, as well as the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the ribosomal RNA gene cluster were sequenced, and phylogenetic analysis of the sequences performed. Morphological examinations were performed by stereomicroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Thirty-one Chaetomium sp. strains (15 from Hungary and 16 from Finland) were examined during the study. The most abundant species was Ch. globosum in both countries. In Hungary, 13 strains were identified as Ch. globosum, 1 as Ch. cochliodes, and 1 as Ch. interruptum. In Finland, 10 strains were Ch. globosum, 2 strains were Ch. cochliodes, 2 were Ch. rectangulare, and 2 isolates (SZMC 26527, SZMC 26529) proved to be representatives of a yet undescribed phylogenetic species from the closely related genus Dichotomopilus, which we formally describe here as the new species Dichotomopilus finlandicus. Growth of the isolates was examined at different temperatures (4, 15, 20, 25, 30, 37, 35, 40, and 45 °C), while their extracellular enzyme production was determined spectrophotometrically.

Mycological Investigation of Bottled Water Dispensers in Healthcare Facilities.

The usage of bottled water dispensers (BWDs) has spread worldwide. Despite their popularity, few studies have dealt with their microbial contaminants, and little attention is given to their fungal contamination. To our knowledge this is the first mycological study of BWDs in Europe. 36 devices have been examined in Budapest, Hungary. Despite of the strictly regulated water hygiene system in Hungary, molds and yeasts were detected in 86.8% of the samples, 56.76% were highly contaminated. Elevated heterotrophic plate counts were also observed in all samples compared to that of Hungarian drinking water. As all physical and chemical water quality characteristics have met the relevant national and European parametric values and neither totally explained the results of microbial counts, the effect of usage and maintenance habits of the devices were examined. Fungal concentrations were affected by the time elapsed since disinfection, days remaining until expiration of bottles, month of sampling and exposure to sunlight during storage. Microbes are able to proliferate in the bottled water and disperse inside the BWDs. Many of the detected fungal species (Sarocladium kiliense, Acremonium sclerotigenum/egyptiacum, Exophiala jeanselmei var. lecanii-corni, Exophiala equina, Meyerozyma guilliermondii, Cystobasidium slooffiae, Aspergillus jensenii, Bisifusarium biseptatum) are opportunistic pathogens for subpopulations of sensitive age groups and patients with immunodeficient conditions, including cystic fibrosis. Thus BWDs may pose a health risk to visitors of healthcare institutions, especially to patients with oral lesions in dental surgeries. The study draws attention to the need to investigate microbial contamination of these devices in other countries as well.

The Occurrence of Skeletons of Silicoflagellata and Other Siliceous Bioparticles in Floral Honeys.

Siliceous marine microfossils were unexpectedly discovered during the analysis of flower honey samples from Poland and Tunisia. The microfossils were represented by protist with siliceous skeletons: silicoflagellates, diatoms, and endoskeletal dinoflagellates. This is the first record of such microfossils in honeys. Based on the high percent of anemophilous pollen grains and spores in the sample, it was hypothesized that silicoflagellates were deposited from the air onto the nectariferous flowers, then bees harvested them with the nectar. Based on the comparison of pollen content of honeys and flowering calendar of Tunisia, the harvest time of honey was identified as a period between 1 April and 31 May 2011. Trajectory analysis of air masses in this period confirmed that siliceous microfossils could be aerosolized by wind from the rocks of the so-called Tripoli Formation of Messinian age (6-7 Ma). Similar to the Tunisian case, the Polish trajectory simulation also supports the hypothesis of atmospheric transport of silicoflagellates from outcrops of Oligocene age in the Polish Outer Carpathians. In the case of diatom content of honey, however, the source can be both natural (wind) and artificial (diatomaceous earth filters). For a correct determination, natural sources of siliceous bioparticles, such as wind transport from nearby outcrops should be also considered. Silicoflagellates could be used as complementary indicators of the geographical origin of honeys collected in areas characterized by diatomite outcrops, supporting the results obtained with other methods; thus, such indicators merit further studies within the area of honey authenticity.

Concomitant occurrence of anthropogenic air pollutants, mineral dust and fungal spores during long-distance transport of ragweed pollen.

Large-scale synoptic conditions are able to transport considerable amounts of airborne particles over entire continents by creating substantial air mass movement. This phenomenon is observed in Europe in relation to highly allergenic ragweed (Ambrosia L.) pollen grains that are transported from populations in Central Europe (mainly the Pannonian Plain and Balkans) to the North. The path taken by atmospheric ragweed pollen often passes through the highly industrialised mining region of Silesia in Southern Poland, considered to be one of the most polluted areas in the EU. It is hypothesized that chemical air pollutants released over Silesia could become mixed with biological material and be transported to less polluted regions further North. We analysed levels of air pollution during episodes of long-distance transport (LDT) of ragweed pollen to Poland. Results show that, concomitantly with pollen, the concentration of air pollutants with potential health-risk, i.e. SO2, and PM10, have also significantly increased (by 104% and 37%, respectively) in the receptor area (Western Poland). Chemical transport modelling (EMEP) and air mass back-trajectory analysis (HYSPLIT) showed that potential sources of PM10 include Silesia, as well as mineral dust from the Ukrainian steppe and the Sahara Desert. In addition, atmospheric concentrations of other allergenic biological particles, i.e. Alternaria Nees ex Fr. spores, also increased markedly (by 115%) during LDT episodes. We suggest that the LDT episodes of ragweed pollen over Europe are not a "one-component" phenomenon, but are often related to elevated levels of chemical air pollutants and other biotic and abiotic components (fungal spores and desert dust).

Environmental characteristics and taxonomy of microscopic fungi isolated from washing machines.

Washing machines (WMs) are convenient places for fungal colonization. This study is focused on fungal diversity of WMs, and investigates relationships between habits of WM users and colonising species. Housekeeping conditions and habits were assessed in Hungary with a questionnaire. Several fungal species were identified by microscopy and sequence analysis of diagnostic loci. Based on the results, 32 % of the sampled WMs were highly polluted with various species of fungi. Forty six percent of them were colonised also by opportunistically human pathogenic species. In total, 32 yeast and 39 filamentous fungal strains were isolated. Growth tests were conducted with five selected taxa (Cutaneotrichosporon dermatis, Cystobasidium slooffiae, Meyerozyma guilliermondii, Candida parapsilosis and the Fusarium oxysporum species complex (FOSC)) to ascertain their tolerance ranges. None of the examined isolates were able to grow >50 °C, 4.10 < pH < 10.88. FOSC could grow at high salinity. More species were detected in WMs operated in rooms without heating systems (p = 0.0025). The number of species was higher in WMs located in the kitchen than the ones kept in bathroom or in other rooms (p = 0.0205). WMs may serve as a reservoir of pathogenic fungi, the presence of which may depend on the usage of these devices.

Near-ground effect of height on pollen exposure.

The effect of height on pollen concentration is not well documented and little is known about the near-ground vertical profile of airborne pollen. This is important as most measuring stations are on roofs, but patient exposure is at ground level. Our study used a big data approach to estimate the near-ground vertical profile of pollen concentrations based on a global study of paired stations located at different heights. We analyzed paired sampling stations located at different heights between 1.5 and 50 m above ground level (AGL). This provided pollen data from 59 Hirst-type volumetric traps from 25 different areas, mainly in Europe, but also covering North America and Australia, resulting in about 2,000,000 daily pollen concentrations analyzed. The daily ratio of the amounts of pollen from different heights per location was used, and the values of the lower station were divided by the higher station. The lower station of paired traps recorded more pollen than the higher trap. However, while the effect of height on pollen concentration was clear, it was also limited (average ratio 1.3, range 0.7-2.2). The standard deviation of the pollen ratio was highly variable when the lower station was located close to the ground level (below 10 m AGL). We show that pollen concentrations measured at >10 m are representative for background near-ground levels.

Impacts of long-term ragweed pollen load and other potential risk factors on ragweed pollen allergy among schoolchildren in Hungary.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: Hungary is one of the areas in Europe most infected with ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) and its pollen, and is the most important cause of seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis in the country. The aim of the study was to investigate the association between ragweed pollen allergy and long-term ragweed pollen load, as well as analysis of the the impacts of additional potential risk factors on health outcomes. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A modified version of standardized questionnaires, based on the International Study of Asthma and Allergy in Childhood, were completed by the parents of schoolchildren aged 8 - 9 attending 3rd grade classes throughout the country. Pollen load was calculated for each settlement from daily ragweed pollen concentrations monitored by 19 monitoring stations in the country. Descriptive and analytical statistical methods were applied. RESULTS: At national level there was a significant inverse association between prevalence of ragweed allergy and its pollen load, but significance was lost after excluding data from Budapest, the capital city, due to the impact of urbanization. In the adjusted model, parental atopic disease was the strongest risk factor (either parent had atopic disease aOR=2.60; 95% CI=2.31-2.93 or both parents had atopic disease aOR=4.56; 95% CI=3.71-5.60). Further significant risk factors were male gender (aOR=1.52; 95% CI=1.36-1.71), lower respiratory infection in the first two years of life (aOR=1.91; 95% CI=1.70-2.16), and unshared children's room (aOR=1.22; 95% CI=1.09-1.37). Allergy was significantly less common among children whose parents received social aid (aOR=0.83; 95% CI=0.72-0.97) and whose mother smoked during pregnancy (aOR=0.80; 95% CI=0.64-0.99). CONCLUSIONS: Higher ragweed pollen exposure was not found to be associated with higher risk of ragweed allergy.

The long distance transport of airborne Ambrosia pollen to the UK and the Netherlands from Central and south Europe.

The invasive alien species Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common or short ragweed) is increasing its range in Europe. In the UK and the Netherlands, airborne concentrations of Ambrosia pollen are usually low. However, more than 30 Ambrosia pollen grains per cubic metre of air (above the level capable to trigger allergic symptoms) were recorded in Leicester (UK) and Leiden (NL) on 4 and 5 September 2014. The aims of this study were to determine whether the highly allergenic Ambrosia pollen recorded during the episode could be the result of long distance transport, to identify the potential sources of these pollen grains and to describe the conditions that facilitated this possible long distance transport. Airborne Ambrosia pollen data were collected at 10 sites in Europe. Back trajectory and atmospheric dispersion calculations were performed using HYSPLIT_4. Back trajectories calculated at Leicester and Leiden show that higher altitude air masses (1500 m) originated from source areas on the Pannonian Plain and Ukraine. During the episode, air masses veered to the west and passed over the Rhône Valley. Dispersion calculations showed that the atmospheric conditions were suitable for Ambrosia pollen released from the Pannonian Plain and the Rhône Valley to reach the higher levels and enter the airstream moving to northwest Europe where they were deposited at ground level and recorded by monitoring sites. The study indicates that the Ambrosia pollen grains recorded during the episode in Leicester and Leiden were probably not produced by local sources but transported long distances from potential source regions in east Europe, i.e. the Pannonian Plain and Ukraine, as well as the Rhône Valley in France.