In vivo environment necessary to support transplanted donor mouse T regulatory cells.

CD4(+) Foxp3(+) T regulatory cells (Tregs ) are essential for maintaining immunological tolerance, which could be harnessed for novel cell-based therapies to prevent allograft rejection and control autoimmunity. However, the use of Tregs for therapy is hindered by the inability to generate sufficient cell numbers to inhibit desired immune response(s) and achieve stable engraftment of the donor-Treg cell inoculums. The present study was undertaken to investigate the in vivo requirements to promote engraftment of adoptively transferred Tregs and induce tolerance. We established that not only is peripheral space required, but competition from endogenous Tregs must be minimized for successful donor-Treg engraftment with IL-2 critical for driving their proliferation and survival. Moreover, these studies revealed a critical level of donor-Treg engraftment was required for tolerance induction to skin transplants. These mouse studies lay the foundation for development of novel Treg approaches for tolerance induction in the clinic involving not only organ or cellular transplantation, but also to re-establish self-tolerance in autoimmune settings.

IL-2 during in vitro priming promotes subsequent engraftment and successful adoptive tumor immunotherapy by persistent memory phenotypic CD8(+) T cells.

Adoptive T cell tumor immunotherapy potentially consists of two protective components by the transferred effector cells, the immediate immune response and the subsequent development of memory T cells. The extent by which adoptively transferred CD8(+) CTL are destined to become memory T cells is ambiguous as most studies focus on the acute effects on tumor shortly following adoptive transfer. In this study we show that a substantial fraction of the input CTL develop into memory cells that reject a s.c. tumor challenge. The use of exogenous IL-2 or a combination of IL-2 and IL-4, but not solely IL-4, during the ex vivo culture for the CTL inoculation was necessary for efficient development of CD8(+) memory T cells. Thus, an important component of adoptive immunotherapy using CTL is the production of CD8(+) Ag-specific memory cells which is primarily favored by IL-2 receptor signaling during ex vivo generation of the effector CTL.

Broad programming by IL-2 receptor signaling for extended growth to multiple cytokines and functional maturation of antigen-activated T cells.

Coincident production of IL-2 and induction of high-affinity IL-2R upon TCR engagement has precluded a clear distinction for the biological outcome of signaling through TCR/costimulatory molecules vs the IL-2R. Using a novel transgenic mouse on the IL-2Rbeta(-/-) genetic background, this study has separated the relative outcome of signaling through the TCR and IL-2R. We show that stimulation through the TCR and CD28 or CD40 ligand directly leads to T cell activation and several rounds of proliferation in an IL-2-independent fashion. However, this stimulation is insufficient for extended T cell growth to multiple cytokines or differentiation into CTL or IFN-gamma-secreting effector T cells. IL-2 is required for these functions in part by regulation of cyclin D3 and granzyme B. Somewhat less efficiently, IL-4 stimulation of these transgenic T cells redundantly rescued many of these activities. These data demonstrate a fundamental requirement for IL-2 and perhaps other common gamma-chain-dependent cytokines to promote selective gene expression by Ag-activated T cells for their subsequent growth and differentiation into effector T lymphocytes.

IL-15 and IL-2: a matter of life and death for T cells in vivo.

Interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-15 are redundant in stimulating T-cell proliferation in vitro. Their precise role in vivo in governing T-cell expansion and T-cell homeostasis is less clear. Each may have distinct functions and regulate distinct aspects of T-cell activation. The functional receptors for IL-2 and IL-15 consist of a private alpha-chain, which defines the binding specificity for IL-2 or IL-15, and shared IL-2 receptor beta- and gamma-chains. The gamma-chain is also a critical signaling component of IL-4, IL-7 and IL-9 receptors. Thus, the gamma-chain is called the common gamma or gamma-c. As these receptor subunits can be expressed individually or in various combinations resulting in the formation of receptors with different affinities, distinct signaling capabilities or both, we hypothesized that differential expression of IL-2 and IL-15 receptor subunits on cycling T cells in vivo may direct activated T cells to respond to IL-2 or IL-15, thereby regulating the homeostasis of T-cell response in vivo. By observing in vivo T-cell divisions and expression of IL-2 and IL-15 receptor subunits, we demonstrate that IL-15 is a critical growth factor in initiating T cell divisions in vivo, whereas IL-2 limits continued T-cell expansion via downregulation of the gamma-c expression. Decreased gamma-c expression on cycling T cells reduced sustained Bcl-2 expression and rendered cells susceptible to apoptotic cell death. Our study provides data that IL-2 and IL-15 regulate distinct aspects of primary T-cell expansion in vivo.

Control of T cell development in vivo by subdomains within the IL-7 receptor alpha-chain cytoplasmic tail.

IL-7/IL-7R signaling functions in both growth and differentiation during T cell development. In this study, we examined the extent these activities were controlled by signaling associated with distinct IL-7R alpha cytoplasmic domains by transgenic expression of wild-type or cytoplasmic deletion mutants of IL-7R alpha in the thymi of IL-7R alpha(-/-) mice. We show an essential requirement for the tyrosine-containing carboxyl-terminal T domain in restoring thymic cellularity, pro-/pre-T cell progression, and survival. In contrast, the functional differentiation of TCR alpha beta cells and the development of TCR gamma delta cells are partially independent of the T domain. Thus, separate cytoplasmic domains of the IL-7R alpha chain differentially control distinct functions during T cell development, whereas normal IL-7R-dependent thymic development requires the integrated activity of all these domains.

Measurement of lymphokine receptors.

One of the most widely studied lymphokine systems is the T lymphocyte growth factor interleukin 2 (IL-2). This unit describes two basic methods for the quantitation and biochemical characterization of IL-2 receptors. The first method employs the radioreceptor assay. Support protocols to this technique describe quantification of data via calculations of association and dissociation rates and the Scatchard plot analysis. The second approach detects cell-surface lymphokine receptors by covalently cross-linking IL-2 to its receptor. This method employs the chemical disuccinimidyl suberate (DSS) to achieve irreversible cross-linking of IL-2 to IL-2R.

The proteasome regulates receptor-mediated endocytosis of interleukin-2.

Recent studies have increasingly implicated the proteasome in the regulation of cell surface receptors. In the present study, we investigated the role of the proteasome for ligand-dependent endocytosis and degradation of the interleukin-2 (IL-2)-interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R) complex. Proteasome inhibitors impaired internalization of IL-2.IL-2R and prevented the lysosomal degradation of this cytokine. Based on time-course studies, proteasome activity is primarily required after initial endocytosis of the IL-2.IL-2R. Proteasome function was also necessary for the lysosomal degradation of IL-2 internalized by IL-2R that were comprised of cytoplasmic tailless beta- or gamma c-subunits, suggesting that the target protein for the proteasome is independent of either the cytoplasmic tail of the IL-2R beta- or gamma c-subunits and their associated signaling components. Therefore, a functional proteasome is required for optimal endocytosis of the IL-2R/ligand complex and is essential for the subsequent lysosomal degradation of IL-2, possibly by regulating trafficking to the lysosome.

Reversal of CD8+ T cell ignorance and induction of anti-tumor immunity by peptide-pulsed APC.

In the present report, we have studied the potential of naive and activated effector CD8(+) T cells to function as anti-tumor T cells to a solid tumor using OVA-specific T cells from TCR-transgenic OT-I mice. Adoptive transfer of naive OT-I T cells into tumor-bearing syngeneic mice did not inhibit tumor cell growth. The adoptively transferred OT-I T cells did not proliferate in lymphoid tissue of tumor-bearing mice and were not anergized by the tumor. In contrast, adoptive transfer of preactivated OT-I CTL inhibited tumor growth in a dose-dependent manner, indicating that E.G7 was susceptible to immune effector cells. Importantly, naive OT-I T cells proliferated and elicited an anti-tumor response if they were adoptively transferred into normal or CD4-deficient mice that were then vaccinated with GM-CSF-induced bone marrow-derived OVA-pulsed APC. Collectively, these data indicate that even though naive tumor-specific T cells are present at a relatively high fraction they remain ignorant of the tumor and demonstrate that a CD8-mediated anti-tumor response can be induced by Ag-pulsed APC without CD4 T cell help.

Thymic and intestinal intraepithelial T lymphocyte development are each regulated by the gammac-dependent cytokines IL-2, IL-7, and IL-15.

Both thymic and extrathymic T lineage development are characterized by cytokine-dependent regulation of complex proliferative, differentiative, and anti-apoptotic processes. The role of the gammac-dependent cytokines in this program has been interpreted as limited to the activity of IL-7. However, through the analysis of double knock-out mice, which lack signaling through the IL-7R and other gammac-dependent cytokines, we revealed a role for IL-15 in the production of early thymic pro-T cells. Although IL-2 does not function in the production of thymocytes, thymic restoration of IL-2R expression prevented fatal autoimmunity associated with IL-2- or IL-2R-deficient mice, suggesting that IL-2R functions non-redundantly at the level of the thymus to regulate self-reactivity. Moreover, IL-2, IL-7, and IL-15 also extend their developmental effects beyond the thymus to other sites of T lymphocyte production, including the gut. Here, their redundant and non-redundant activities are directly correlated to the development of phenotypically diverse subsets of intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes.

Efficient internalization of IL-2 depends on the distal portion of the cytoplasmic tail of the IL-2R common gamma-chain and a lymphoid cell environment.

The common gamma-chain (gammac), a subunit of the IL-2R, is essential for high affinity ligand binding and signal transduction due to Jak3 association to gammac. Another consequence of IL-2/IL-2R interaction is rapid receptor-mediated endocytosis of the receptor-ligand complex. In the present study, we establish that this rapid endocytosis of IL-2 in a T cell tumor line is dependent upon the cytoplasmic tail of gammac. Deletion mutants of the cytoplasmic tail mapped this activity to 9 aa of gammac, 45-54 aa distal to the transmembrane region. In contrast, ligand-independent constitutive endocytosis of gammac occurred more slowly and was dependent upon a PEST sequence in a more membrane-proximal region of the cytoplasmic tail of gammac. Thus, this receptor subunit may use distinct sorting signals for its constitutive regulation and ligand-induced endocytosis. Rapid endocytosis of IL-2 was inhibited by the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein, implicating a role for a signal transduction pathway in IL-2 internalization. However, one T cell line bearing a mutant gammac exhibited impaired endocytosis of IL-2, despite normal IL-2-induced Jak/STAT activation. Furthermore, inefficient endocytosis of IL-2 was noted after transfection of the COS7 epithelial cell line with the IL-2R, and further reconstitution of these cells with Jak/STAT proteins did not enhance this internalization. Collectively, these latter findings indicate that rapid endocytosis of IL-2 is dependent upon cellular signaling in lymphoid cell environment that is not solely a consequence of the presence of the Jak/STAT pathway.

Three loops of the common gamma chain ectodomain required for the binding of interleukin-2 and interleukin-7.

The common gamma chain (gammac), a subunit of the interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, and IL-15 receptors, contributes to both cytokine binding and subsequent signal transduction. Using a model-based site-directed mutagenesis strategy, we have identified residues of the mouse gammac extracellular domain that are required for normal gammac-dependent enhancement of IL-2 and IL-7 binding. One of these sites, Tyr-103, is homologous to key ligand-interacting residues in the growth hormone and erythropoietin receptors, whereas Cys-161, Cys-210, and Gly-211 may function indirectly by maintaining the functional conformation of gammac via formation of an intramolecular disulfide bond. These two cysteines are also required for the integrity of a putative epitope recognized by TUGm2, an antagonistic monoclonal antibody that blocks gammac-dependent cytokine binding and bioactivity. These results are consistent with the involvement of three predicted loops in gammac that contribute to the binding of both IL-2 and IL-7. Mutations in these loops have also been noted in the gammac gene of patients with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency.

Normal lymphoid homeostasis and lack of lethal autoimmunity in mice containing mature T cells with severely impaired IL-2 receptors.

The importance of IL-2Rbeta function for immune regulation is highlighted by the severe impairment in lymphoid cell function in IL-2Rbeta-deficient mice. It has been speculated that failed IL-2/IL-2R signaling in peripheral T cells causes the associated autoimmunity, imbalanced peripheral lymphoid homeostasis, and defective T cell function. This study explored the requirement for IL-2Rbeta function in mature T lymphocytes. We show that transgenic thymic expression of the IL-2R beta-chain in IL-2Rbeta-deficient mice prevents lethal autoimmunity, restores normal production of B lymphocytes, and results in a peripheral T cell compartment that is responsive to triggering through the TCR, but not the IL-2R. The dysfunction of the IL-2R is illustrated by the near complete failure of mature T cells to proliferate to IL-2 in vitro and in vivo, to differentiate into CTL, and to up-regulate IL-2Ralpha expression. These data indicate that lymphoid homeostasis is largely maintained despite a nonfunctional IL-2R in mature T lymphocytes and suggest that IL-2Rbeta provides an essential signal during thymic development to regulate self-reactivity.

Blocking the common gamma-chain of cytokine receptors induces T cell apoptosis and long-term islet allograft survival.

The common gammac-chain is an essential signaling component shared by all known T cell growth factor (TCGF) receptors (i.e., IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, and IL-15). In the present study, we have studied the effect of gammac-chain blockade on T cell activation and allograft rejection. Treatment of B6AF1 (H-2b/d.k) recipient mice with anti-gammac mAbs induced long-term survival of DBA/2 (H-2d) islet allografts (>150 days, n = 8), whereas control Ab-treated mice rejected the islet allografts within 17 days (n = 6). The state of engraftment induced by the anti-gammac mAbs was remarkably stable, as recipient mice bearing the primary islet allografts accepted a second DBA/2 islet allograft without further immunosuppression and systemic administration of high doses of IL-2Ig fusion protein failed to provoke rejection. Blocking the gammac-chain inhibited T cell proliferation and induced T cell apoptosis by repressing expression of Bcl-2. Our data suggest that one means of inducing T cell apoptosis and stable allograft survival can be achieved via gammac-chain blockade.

IL-2Rbeta/IL-7Ralpha doubly deficient mice recapitulate the thymic and intraepithelial lymphocyte (IEL) developmental defects of gammac-/- mice: roles for both IL-2 and IL-15 in CD8alphaalpha IEL development.

IL-7Ralpha-chain-deficient (IL-7Ralpha-/-) and common gamma chain-deficient (gammac-/-) mice both exhibit abnormal thymic and intestinal intraepithelial lymphocyte (IEL) development, but the developmental inhibition is not equivalent. In this report, we assessed whether the defects in T cell development associated with gammac-/- mice were due to currently defined gammac-dependent cytokines by cross-breeding IL-7Ralpha-/- mice to mice lacking either IL-2, IL-4, or IL-2Rbeta. IL-2/IL-7Ralpha and IL-4/IL-7Ralpha double knockout (DKO) mice demonstrated equivalent thymic development to IL-7Ralpha-/- mice, whereas IL-2Rbeta/IL-7Ralpha DKO mice, which lack IL-2, IL-7, and IL-15 signaling, displayed thymic T cell defects identical to gammac-/- mice. Collectively, these data indicate that of the gammac-dependent cytokines, only IL-7 and IL-15 contribute to the progression and production of thymic T cells. In the IEL, IL-7Ralpha-/- mice selectively lack CD8alphaalpha TCRgammadelta cells, whereas IL-2Rbeta-/- mice show a significant reduction in all CD8alphaalpha cells. IL-2-/- and IL-2/IL-7Ralpha DKO mice demonstrated a reduction in CD8alphaalpha IELs to nearly the same extent as IL-2Rbeta-/- mice, indicating that IL-2 functions in CD8alphaalpha IEL development. Moreover, IL-2Rbeta/IL-7Ralpha DKO mice lacked nearly all TCR-bearing IEL, again recapitulating the phenotype of gammac-/- mice. Thus, these data point to the importance of IL-2, IL-7, and IL-15 as the gammac-dependent cytokines essential for IEL development.

Immobilization of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins inhibits T cell growth but not function.

Accumulating evidence suggests that proteins tethered to the plasma membrane through glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors share common biological properties. In the present study we demonstrate that GPI-anchored proteins regulate T cell growth. Specifically, anti-TCR-induced proliferation was profoundly inhibited by co-immobilized mAb specific for Thy-1, CD48 and Ly6A/E. However, neither IL-2 production nor the effector function of cytotoxic T lymphocytes was impaired in these circumstances. Analysis of the IL-2 receptor (IL-2R) signaling pathway revealed that the association of IL-2R beta and gamma chains with the Janus kinases, JAK1 and JAK3, was not perturbed in the presence of mAb specific for GPI-linked proteins. However, in these conditions, IL-2-mediated recruitment of IL-2Ralpha, beta and gamma chains, resulting in the formation of the high-affinity hetero-trimeric IL-2R, was inhibited. The resulting phosphorylation of JAK1 and JAK3, indicative of their activation states, was correspondingly reduced. These results characterize a novel state of T cell physiology in which effector function is maintained, in the absence of clonal expansion. A physiological role for GPI-anchored proteins in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and function is discussed.

Prostaglandin E2 inhibits T cell activation-induced apoptosis and Fas-mediated cellular cytotoxicity by blockade of Fas-ligand induction.

Prostanoids exhibit both pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic functions depending on the maturation stage and tissue localization of target cells. Prostaglandin (PG) E2 has been shown to protect T lymphocytes from TCR-mediated activation-induced cell death, but the mechanism by which PGE2 inhibits apoptosis of T cells has not been established. We show that this protection involves the down-regulation of Fas-ligand (Fas-L) mRNA levels in T cells. Modulation of cell surface Fas-L expression by physiological concentrations of PGE2 was shown to be both anti-apoptotic as well as capable of inhibiting Fas-L-mediated cytotoxicity of Fas-transfected P815 target cells. Thus, this study provides direct evidence of the likely biological means by which PGE2 down-regulates T cell apoptosis.

Multiple gamma c-dependent cytokines regulate T-cell development.

Mutations in the common gamma chain (gamma c) of cytokine receptors account for human X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency disease. gamma c contributes to ligand binding and signaling as a component of five cytokine receptors: interleukin-2-receptor (IL-2R), IL-4R, IL-7R, IL-9R and IL-15R. Here, Thomas Malek and colleagues discuss the contribution of individual gamma c-dependent cytokines in both conventional and intraepithelial T-cell development.

The structure and function of gamma c-dependent cytokines and receptors: regulation of T lymphocyte development and homeostasis.

Five cytokines, IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, and IL-15, form one group that is characterized by utilizing the common gamma chain (gamma c) as a receptor subunit. Examination of the phenotype of various cytokine or cytokine receptor "knockout" mice demonstrates that these cytokines are critical for normal lymphocyte development and subsequent functional activity of the peripheral immune compartment. This review summarizes the structural and functional properties of each of these five cytokines and their receptors, including the known redundant pathways for each cytokine or receptor. The contribution of these cytokines and receptors will then be considered in detail with respect to regulation of T lymphocyte development and homeostasis of the peripheral T cell compartment.