The Importance of Ventral Hippocampal Dopamine and Norepinephrine in Recognition Memory.

Dopaminergic neurons originating from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the locus coeruleus are innervating the ventral hippocampus and are thought to play an essential role for efficient cognitive function. Moreover, these VTA projections are hypothesized to be part of a functional loop, in which dopamine regulates memory storage. It is hypothesized that when a novel stimulus is encountered and recognized as novel, increased dopamine activity in the hippocampus induces long-term potentiation and long-term storage of memories. We here demonstrate the importance of increased release of dopamine and norepinephrinein the rat ventral hippocampus on recognition memory, using microdialysis combined to a modified novel object recognition test. We found that presenting rats to a novel object significantly increased dopamine and norepinephrine output in the ventral hippocampus. Two hours after introducing the first object, a second object (either novel or familiar) was placed in the same position as the first object. Presenting the animals to a second novel object significantly increased dopamine and norepinephrine release in the ventral hippocampus, compared to a familiar object. In conclusion, this study suggests that dopamine and norepinephrine output in the ventral hippocampus has a crucial role in recognition memory and signals novelty.

Deuterium-substituted L-DOPA displays increased behavioral potency and dopamine output in an animal model of Parkinson's disease: comparison with the effects produced by L-DOPA and an MAO-B inhibitor.

The most effective treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) L-DOPA is associated with major side effects, in particular L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia, which motivates development of new treatment strategies. We have previously shown that chronic treatment with a substantially lower dose of deuterium-substituted L-DOPA (D3-L-DOPA), compared with L-DOPA, produced equal anti-parkinsonian effect and reduced dyskinesia in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. The advantageous effects of D3-L-DOPA are in all probability related to a reduced metabolism of deuterium dopamine by the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO). Therefore, a comparative neurochemical analysis was here performed studying the effects of D3-L-DOPA and L-DOPA on dopamine output and metabolism in 6-OHDA-lesioned animals using in vivo microdialysis. The effects produced by D3-L-DOPA and L-DOPA alone were additionally compared with those elicited when the drugs were combined with the MAO-B inhibitor selegiline, used in PD treatment. The different treatment combinations were first evaluated for motor activation; here the increased potency of D3-L-DOPA, as compared to that of L-DOPA, was confirmed and shown to be of equal magnitude as the effect produced by the combination of selegiline/L-DOPA. The extracellular levels of dopamine were also increased following both D3-L-DOPA and selegiline/L-DOPA administration compared with L-DOPA administration. The enhanced behavioral and neurochemical effects produced by D3-L-DOPA and the combination of selegiline/L-DOPA are attributed to decreased metabolism of released dopamine by MAO-B. The similar effect produced by D3-L-DOPA and selegiline/L-DOPA, respectively, is of considerable clinical interest since D3-L-DOPA, previously shown to exhibit a wider therapeutic window, in addition may reduce the need for adjuvant MAO-B inhibitor treatment.

Dopamine in the hippocampus is cleared by the norepinephrine transporter.

Abnormal dopaminergic neurotransmission in the hippocampus may be involved in certain aspects of cognitive dysfunction. In the hippocampus, there is little, if any, expression of dopamine transporters (DAT), indicating that the mechanism for dopamine clearance differs from that in the striatum. Here, by means of in-vivo microdialysis in freely moving rats, we tested the hypothesis that the norepinephrine transporter (NET) is involved in dopamine clearance in the hippocampus. We found that systemic administration of the selective NET inhibitor reboxetine (3 mg/kg) and the psychostimulants amphetamine (0.5 mg/kg) and cocaine (10 mg/kg) increased hippocampal dopamine efflux. Local administration of reboxetine (300 µM) produced a large increase in hippocampal dopamine levels that could not be further enhanced by the addition of the NET/DAT inhibitor nomifensine (100 µM). Administration of the specific DAT inhibitor GBR12909 at a concentration (1 mM) that robustly increased dopamine in the nucleus accumbens had a comparably smaller effect in the hippocampus. In line with a minor role of DAT in the hippocampus, we detected very little DAT in this area using ligand binding with radiolabelled RTI-55. Moreover, in contrast to raclopride (100 µM), a dopamine D2-autoreceptor antagonist, local administration of the α2-adrenoceptor antagonist idazoxan (100 µM) increased hippocampal dopamine. Taken together, our data demonstrate an interaction between dopamine and norepinephrine systems in the hippocampus. It is proposed that this interaction originates from a shared uptake mechanism at the NET level.

Deuterium substitutions in the L-DOPA molecule improve its anti-akinetic potency without increasing dyskinesias.

Treatment of Parkinson's disease is complicated by a high incidence of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesias (LID). Strategies to prevent the development of LID aim at providing more stable dopaminergic stimulation. We have previously shown that deuterium substitutions in the L-DOPA molecule (D3-L-DOPA) yield dopamine that appears more resistant to enzymatic breakdown. We here investigated the effects of D3-L-DOPA on motor performance and development of dyskinesias in a rodent model of Parkinson's disease. Through acute experiments, monitoring rotational behavior, dose-effect curves were established for D3-L-DOPA and L-DOPA. The equipotent dose of D3-L-DOPA was estimated to be 60% of L-DOPA. Subsequently, animals were treated with either the equipotent dose of D3-L-DOPA (5 mg/kg), the equivalent dose of D3-L-DOPA (8 mg/kg), L-DOPA (8 mg/kg) or vehicle. The equivalent dose of D3-L-DOPA produced superior anti-akinetic effects compared to L-DOPA in the cylinder test (p<0.05), whereas the equipotent dose of D3-L-DOPA produced an anti-akinetic effect similar to L-DOPA. Dyskinesias developed to the same degree in the groups treated with equivalent doses of D3-L-DOPA and L-DOPA. The equipotent dose of D3-L-DOPA induced fewer dyskinesias than L-DOPA (p<0.05). In conclusion, our study provides evidence for improved potency and reduced side-effects of L-DOPA by deuterium substitutions in the molecule. These results are of clinical interest since the occurrence of LID is related to the total L-DOPA dose administered. D3-L-DOPA may thus represent a novel strategy to reduce the total dose requirement and yet achieve an effective control of parkinsonian symptoms.

Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in the growth plate is stimulated by estradiol and increases during pubertal development.

Longitudinal bone growth is regulated in the growth plate. At the end of puberty, growth velocity diminishes and eventually ceases with the fusion of the growth plate through mechanisms that are not yet completely understood. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has an important role in angiogenesis, but also in chondrocyte differentiation, chondrocyte survival, and the final stages of endochondral ossification. Estrogens have been shown to up-regulate VEGF expression in the uterus and bone of rats. In this study, we investigated the relation between estrogens and VEGF production in growth plate chondrocytes both in vivo and in vitro. The expression of VEGF protein was down-regulated upon ovariectomy and was restored upon estradiol (E(2)) supplementation in rat growth plates. In cultured rat chondrocyte cell line RCJ3.1C5.18, E(2) dose dependently stimulated 121 and 189 kDa isoforms of VEGF, but not the 164 kDa isoform. Finally, VEGF expression was observed at both protein and mRNA levels in human growth plate specimens. The protein level increased during pubertal development, supporting a link between estrogens and local VEGF production in the growth plate. We conclude that estrogens regulate VEGF expression in the epiphyseal growth plate, although the precise role of VEGF in estrogen-mediated growth plate fusion remains to be clarified.

Altered behavioural and neurochemical profile of L-DOPA following deuterium substitutions in the molecule.

In Parkinson's disease patients, a prolonged half-life of dopamine formed from L-DOPA may reduce the risk of developing L-DOPA-induced side-effects. Deuterium substitutions in the L-DOPA molecule are expected to yield dopamine with an altered half-life because C-D bonds are more stable than C-H bonds. Therefore we tested, in the rat, the neurochemical and behavioral effects of different types of L-DOPA with deuterium substitutions at the alpha-carbon and/or the beta-carbon. By means of microdialysis, we found that L-DOPA with 3 deuterium substitutions (D3-L-DOPA) enhanced dopamine output in the striatum more effectively than L-DOPA and all the other deuterium variants. Moreover, D3-L-DOPA produced a more pronounced stimulation of locomotor activity in reserpinized rats compared to conventional L-DOPA. In contrast beta,beta-D2-L-DOPA was less effective than L-DOPA in raising striatal dopamine levels and was ineffective at restoring locomotor activity in reserpinized rats. These results demonstrate that the introduction of deuterium at different positions in the L-DOPA molecule dramatically changes its behavioral and neurochemical profile and suggest that L-DOPA treatment of Parkinson's disease may be improved in this way.