MicroRNA-204 Is Necessary for Aldosterone-Stimulated T-Type Calcium Channel Expression in Cardiomyocytes.

Activation of the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) in the heart is considered to be a cardiovascular risk factor. MR activation leads to heart hypertrophy and arrhythmia. In ventricular cardiomyocytes, aldosterone induces a profound remodeling of ion channel expression, in particular, an increase in the expression and activity of T-type voltage-gated calcium channels (T-channels). The molecular mechanisms immediately downstream from MR activation, which lead to the increased expression of T-channels and, consecutively, to an acceleration of spontaneous cell contractions in vitro, remain poorly investigated. Here, we investigated the putative role of a specific microRNA in linking MR activation to the regulation of T-channel expression and cardiomyocyte beating frequency. A screening assay identified microRNA 204 (miR-204) as one of the major upregulated microRNAs after aldosterone stimulation of isolated neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Aldosterone significantly increased the level of miR-204, an effect blocked by the MR antagonist spironolactone. When miR-204 was overexpressed in isolated cardiomyocytes, their spontaneous beating frequency was significantly increased after 24 h, like upon aldosterone stimulation, and messenger RNAs coding T-channels (CaV3.1 and CaV3.2) were increased. Concomitantly, T-type calcium currents were significantly increased upon miR-204 overexpression. Specifically repressing the expression of miR-204 abolished the aldosterone-induced increase of CaV3.1 and CaV3.2 mRNAs, as well as T-type calcium currents. Finally, aldosterone and miR-204 overexpression were found to reduce REST-NRSF, a known transcriptional repressor of CaV3.2 T-type calcium channels. Our study thus strongly suggests that miR-204 expression stimulated by aldosterone promotes the expression of T-channels in isolated rat ventricular cardiomyocytes, and therefore, increases the frequency of the cell spontaneous contractions, presumably through the inhibition of REST-NRSF protein.

CD14 as a Mediator of the Mineralocorticoid Receptor-Dependent Anti-apolipoprotein A-1 IgG Chronotropic Effect on Cardiomyocytes.

In vitro and animal studies point to autoantibodies against apolipoprotein A-1 (anti-apoA-1 IgG) as possible mediators of cardiovascular (CV) disease involving several mechanisms such as basal heart rate interference mediated by a mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent L-type calcium channel activation, and a direct pro-inflammatory effect through the engagement of the toll-like receptor (TLR) 2/CD14 complex. Nevertheless, the possible implication of these receptors in the pro-arrhythmogenic effect of anti-apoA-1 antibodies remains elusive. We aimed at determining whether CD14 and TLRs could mediate the anti-apoA-1 IgG chronotropic response in neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes (NRVC). Blocking CD14 suppressed anti-apoA-1 IgG binding to NRVC and the related positive chronotropic response. Anti-apoA-1 IgG alone induced the formation of a TLR2/TLR4/CD14 complex, followed by the phosphorylation of Src, whereas aldosterone alone promoted the phosphorylation of Akt by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), without affecting the chronotropic response. In the presence of both aldosterone and anti-apoA-1 IgG, the localization of TLR2/TLR4/CD14 was increased in membrane lipid rafts, followed by PI3K and Src activation, leading to an L-type calcium channel-dependent positive chronotropic response. Pharmacological inhibition of the Src pathway led to the decrease of L-type calcium channel activity and abrogated the NRVC chronotropic response. Activation of CD14 seems to be a key regulator of the mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent anti-apoA-1 IgG positive chronotropic effect on NRVCs, involving relocation of the CD14/TLR2/TLR4 complex into lipid rafts followed by PI3K and Src-dependent L-type calcium channel activation.

The Human Autoantibody Response to Apolipoprotein A-I Is Focused on the C-Terminal Helix: A New Rationale for Diagnosis and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease?

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide and new approaches for both diagnosis and treatment are required. Autoantibodies directed against apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) represent promising biomarkers for use in risk stratification of CVD and may also play a direct role in pathogenesis. METHODOLOGY: To characterize the anti-ApoA-I autoantibody response, we measured the immunoreactivity to engineered peptides corresponding to the different alpha-helical regions of ApoA-I, using plasma from acute chest pain cohort patients known to be positive for anti-ApoA-I autoantibodies. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Our results indicate that the anti-ApoA-I autoantibody response is strongly biased towards the C-terminal alpha-helix of the protein, with an optimized mimetic peptide corresponding to this part of the protein recapitulating the diagnostic accuracy for an acute ischemic coronary etiology (non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction and unstable angina) obtainable using intact endogenous ApoA-I in immunoassay. Furthermore, the optimized mimetic peptide strongly inhibits the pathology-associated capacity of anti-ApoA-I antibodies to elicit proinflammatory cytokine release from cultured human macrophages. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to providing a rationale for the development of new approaches for the diagnosis and therapy of CVD, our observations may contribute to the elucidation of how anti-ApoA-I autoantibodies are elicited in individuals without autoimmune disease.

In vivo and in vitro evidences of dehydroepiandrosterone protective role on the cardiovascular system.

CONTEXT: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate ester, Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate (DHEA-S) have been considered as putative anti-aging hormones for many years. Indeed, while DHEAS is the most abundant circulating hormone, its concentration is markedly decreased upon aging and early epidemiologic trials have revealed a strong inverse correlation between the hormone concentrations and the occurrence of several dysfunctions frequently encountered in the elderly. Naturally, hormonal supplementation has been rapidly suggested to prevent DHEA (S) deficiency and therefore, age-related development of these pathologies, using the same strategy as estrogen replacement therapy proposed in postmenopausal women. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: All references were searched using PubMed and the following strategy: our initial selection included all articles in English and we sorted them with the following keywords: "DHEA or DHEA-S" and "heart or vascular or endothelium or cardiovascular disease". The search was limited to neither the publication date nor specific journals. The final selection was made according to the relevance of the article content with the aims of the review. According to these criteria, fewer than 10% of the articles retrieved at the first step were discarded. RESULTS: In this short review, we have focused on the cardiovascular action of DHEA. We started by analyzing evidences in favor of a strong inverse association between DHEA (S) levels and the cardiovascular risk as demonstrated in multiple observational epidemiologic studies for several decades. Then we discussed the different trials aimed at supplementing DHEA (S), both in animals and human, for preventing cardiovascular diseases and we analyzed the possible reasons for the discrepancy observed among the results of some studies. Finally, we presented putative molecular mechanisms of action for DHEA (S), demonstrated in vitro in different models of vascular and cardiac cells, highlighting the complexity of the involved signaling pathways. CONCLUSIONS: The identification of the beneficial cardiovascular effects of DHEA (S) and a better understanding of the involved mechanisms should be helpful to develop new strategies or pharmacologic approaches for many lethal diseases in Western countries.

Dynamic phosphorylation of VE-cadherin Y685 throughout mouse estrous cycle in ovary and uterus.

We previously reported that vascular endothelial growth factor induced vascular endothelial (VE)-cadherin tyrosine phosphorylation at Y685 in a Src-dependent manner in vitro. Here, we studied the occurrence of Y685 phosphorylation in vivo in the female reproductive tract because it is a unique model of physiological vascular remodeling dependent on vascular endothelial growth factor. We first developed and characterized an anti-phospho-specific antibody against the site Y685 of VE-cadherin to monitor VE-cadherin phosphorylation along the four phases of mouse estrous cycle, termed proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus. A dynamic profile of tyrosine phosphorylated proteins was observed in both uterus and ovary throughout mouse estrous cycle, including kinase Src, which was found highly active at the estrus phase. The extent of tyrosine phosphorylated VE-cadherin was low at proestrus but strongly increased at estrus and returned to baseline at metestrus and diestrus, suggesting a potent hormonal regulation of this specific process. Indeed, C57Bl/6 female mice treatment with pregnant mare serum gonadotropin and human chorionic gonadotropin confirmed a significant increase in phosphoY685-VE-cadherin compared with that in untreated mice. These results demonstrate that VE-cadherin tyrosine phosphorylation at Y685 is a physiological and hormonally regulated process in female reproductive organs. In addition, this process was concomitant with the early steps of vascular remodeling taking place at estrus stage, suggesting that phosphoY685-VE-cadherin is a biomarker of endothelial cell activation in vivo.

VE-cadherin Y685F knock-in mouse is sensitive to vascular permeability in recurrent angiogenic organs.

Covalent modifications such as tyrosine phosphorylation are associated with the breakdown of endothelial cell junctions and increased vascular permeability. We previously showed that vascular endothelial (VE)-cadherin was tyrosine phosphorylated in vivo in the mouse reproductive tract and that Y685 was a target site for Src in response to vascular endothelial growth factor in vitro. In the present study, we aimed to understand the implication of VE-cadherin phosphorylation at site Y685 in cyclic angiogenic organs. To achieve this aim, we generated a knock-in mouse carrying a tyrosine-to-phenylalanine point mutation of VE-cadherin Y685 (VE-Y685F). Although homozygous VE-Y685F mice were viable and fertile, the nulliparous knock-in female mice exhibited enlarged uteri with edema. This phenotype was observed in 30% of females between 4 to 14 mo old. Histological examination of longitudinal sections of the VE-Y685F uterus showed an extensive disorganization of myometrium and endometrium with highly edematous uterine glands, numerous areas with sparse cells, and increased accumulation of collagen fibers around blood vessels, indicating a fibrotic state. Analysis of cross section of ovaries showed the appearance of spontaneous cysts, which suggested increased vascular hyperpermeability. Electron microscopy analysis of capillaries in the ovary showed a slight but significant increase in the gap size between two adjacent endothelial cell membranes in the junctions of VE-Y685F mice (wild-type, 11.5 ± 0.3, n = 78; and VE-Y685F, 12.48 ± 0.3, n = 65; P = 0.045), as well as collagen fiber accumulation around capillaries. Miles assay revealed that either basal or vascular endothelial growth factor-stimulated permeability in the skin was increased in VE-Y685F mice. Since edema and fibrotic appearance have been identified as hallmarks of initial increased vascular permeability, we conclude that the site Y685 in VE-cadherin is involved in the physiological regulation of capillary permeability. Furthermore, this knock-in mouse model is of potential interest for further studies of diseases that are associated with abnormal vascular permeability.

Evidence for post-translational processing of vascular endothelial (VE)-cadherin in brain tumors: towards a candidate biomarker.

Vessel abnormalities are among the most important features in malignant glioma. Vascular endothelial (VE)-cadherin is of major importance for vascular integrity. Upon cytokine challenge, VE-cadherin structural modifications have been described including tyrosine phosphorylation and cleavage. The goal of this study was to examine whether these events occurred in human glioma vessels. We demonstrated that VE-cadherin is highly expressed in human glioma tissue and tyrosine phosphorylated at site Y(685), a site previously found phosphorylated upon VEGF challenge, via Src activation. In vitro experiments showed that VEGF-induced VE-cadherin phosphorylation, preceded the cleavage of its extracellular adhesive domain (sVE, 90 kDa). Interestingly, metalloproteases (MMPs) secreted by glioma cell lines were responsible for sVE release. Because VEGF and MMPs are important components of tumor microenvironment, we hypothesized that VE-cadherin proteolysis might occur in human brain tumors. Analysis of glioma patient sera prior treatment confirmed the presence of sVE in bloodstream. Furthermore, sVE levels studied in a cohort of 53 glioma patients were significantly predictive of the overall survival at three years (HR 0.13 [0.04; 0.40] p ≤ 0.001), irrespective to histopathological grade of tumors. Altogether, these results suggest that VE-cadherin structural modifications should be examined as candidate biomarkers of tumor vessel abnormalities, with promising applications in oncology.

Circadian clock characteristics are altered in human thyroid malignant nodules.

CONTEXT: The circadian clock represents the body's molecular time-keeping system. Recent findings revealed strong changes of clock gene expression in various types of human cancers. OBJECTIVE: Due to emerging evidence on the connection between the circadian oscillator, cell cycle, and oncogenic transformation, we aimed to characterize the circadian clockwork in human benign and malignant thyroid nodules. DESIGN: Clock transcript levels were assessed by quantitative RT-PCR in thyroid tissues. To provide molecular characteristics of human thyroid clockwork, primary thyrocytes established from normal or nodular thyroid tissue biopsies were subjected to in vitro synchronization with subsequent clock gene expression analysis by circadian bioluminescence reporter assay and by quantitative RT-PCR. RESULTS: The expression levels of the Bmal1 were up-regulated in tissue samples of follicular thyroid carcinoma (FTC), and in papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), as compared with normal thyroid and benign nodules, whereas Cry2 was down-regulated in FTC and PTC. Human thyrocytes derived from normal thyroid tissue exhibited high-amplitude circadian oscillations of Bmal1-luciferase reporter expression and endogenous clock transcripts. Thyrocytes established from FTC and PTC exhibited clock transcript oscillations similar to those of normal thyroid tissue and benign nodules (except for Per2 altered in PTC), whereas cells derived from poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma exhibited altered circadian oscillations. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study demonstrating a molecular makeup of the human thyroid circadian clock. Characterization of the thyroid clock machinery alterations upon thyroid nodule malignant transformation contributes to understanding the connections between circadian clocks and oncogenic transformation. Moreover, it might help in improving the thyroid nodule preoperative diagnostics.

DHEA prevents mineralo- and glucocorticoid receptor-induced chronotropic and hypertrophic actions in isolated rat cardiomyocytes.

Corticosteroids have been involved in the genesis of ventricular arrhythmias associated with pathological heart hypertrophy, although molecular mechanisms responsible for these effects have not been completely explained. Because mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) antagonists have been demonstrated to be beneficial on the cardiac function, much attention has been given to the action of aldosterone on the heart. However, we have previously shown that both aldosterone and corticosterone in vitro induce a marked acceleration of the spontaneous contractions, as well as a significant cell hypertrophy in isolated neonate rat ventricular cardiomyocytes. Moreover, a beneficial role of the steroid hormone dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) has been also proposed, but the mechanism of its putative cardioprotective function is not known. We found that DHEA reduces both the chronotropic and the hypertrophic responses of cardiomyocytes upon stimulation of MR and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in vitro. DHEA inhibitory effects were accompanied by a decrease of T-type calcium channel expression and activity, as assessed by quantitative PCR and the patch-clamp technique. Prevention of cell hypertrophy by DHEA was also revealed by measuring the expression of A-type natriuretic peptide and BNP. The kinetics of the negative chronotropic effect of DHEA, and its sensitivity to actinomycin D, pointed out the presence of both genomic and nongenomic mechanisms of action. Although the genomic action of DHEA was effective mostly upon MR activation, its rapid, nongenomic response appeared related to DHEA antioxidant properties. On the whole, these results suggest new mechanisms for a putative cardioprotective role of DHEA in corticosteroid-associated heart diseases.

Soluble VE-cadherin in rheumatoid arthritis patients correlates with disease activity: evidence for tumor necrosis factor α-induced VE-cadherin cleavage.

OBJECTIVE: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, systemic inflammatory disorder that principally attacks synovial joints. However, accelerated atherosclerosis and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality are major clinical consequences of endothelial dysfunction in RA patients. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) is the major mediator of inflammation in RA, related to vascular injury by targeting VE-cadherin, an endothelium-specific adhesion molecule of vital importance for endothelium integrity and angiogenesis. We undertook this study to examine the mechanisms regulating VE-cadherin processing by TNFα and their occurrence in RA. METHODS: Human umbilical vein endothelial cells were used in primary culture and treated with recombinant TNFα to study VE-cadherin cleavage. Cell lysates and conditioned media were analyzed by Western blotting for VE-cadherin cytoplasmic domain and extracellular domain (VE-90) generation, respectively. VE-90 was analyzed at baseline and at the 1-year followup in sera from 63 RA patients (from the Very Early Rheumatoid Arthritis cohort) with disease duration of <6 months. RESULTS: TNFα induced a time-dependent shedding of VE-90 in cell media. This effect was prevented by tyrosine kinase inhibitors (genistein and PP2) or by knocking down Src kinase. In contrast, tyrosine phosphatase blockade enhanced VE-cadherin cleavage, confirming the requirement of tyrosine phosphorylation processes. In addition, using the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activator APMA and the MMP inhibitor GM6001, we demonstrated that MMPs are involved in TNFα-induced VE-cadherin cleavage. Of major importance, VE-90 was detected in sera from the 63 RA patients and was positively correlated with the Disease Activity Score at baseline and after 1-year followup. CONCLUSION: These findings provide the first evidence of VE-cadherin proteolysis upon TNFα stimulation and suggest potential clinical relevance of soluble VE-cadherin in management of RA.