Unfit or disliked: How descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotypes lead to discrimination against women.

Decades of research attest to the role of gender stereotypes in the emergence of gender-based discrimination. Placing a focus on recent studies, we provide evidence that gender stereotypes continue to negatively affect women's career outcomes in jobs and fields that are seen as male in gender-type. We identify two pathways through which gender stereotypes bring about discrimination: Whereas descriptive gender stereotypes lead to gender discrimination through negative performance expectations produced by lack-of-fit perceptions, prescriptive gender stereotypes lead to gender discrimination through social penalties elicited by perceived stereotype violation. We end by discussing how characteristics of women and those evaluating them may amplify or ameliorate discriminatory behavior, and by considering how organizations and policymakers can leverage research to promote gender equality.

Belief in sexism shift: Defining a new form of contemporary sexism and introducing the belief in sexism shift scale (BSS scale).

The belief that the target of sexism has shifted from women to men is gaining popularity. Yet despite its potential theoretical and practical importance, the belief that men are now the primary target of sexism has not been systematically defined nor has it been reliably measured. In this paper, we define the belief in sexism shift (BSS) and introduce a scale to measure it. We contend that BSS constitutes a new form of contemporary sexism characterized by the perception that anti-male discrimination is pervasive, that it now exceeds anti-female discrimination, and that it is caused by women's societal advancement. In four studies (N = 666), we develop and test a concise, one-dimensional, 15-item measure of BSS: the BSS scale. Our findings demonstrate that BSS is related to, yet distinct from other forms of sexism (traditional, modern, and ambivalent sexism). Moreover, our results show that the BSS scale is a stable and reliable measure of BSS across different samples, time, and participant gender. The BSS scale is also less susceptible to social desirability concerns than other sexism measures. In sum, the BSS scale can be a valuable tool to help understand a new and potentially growing type of sexism that may hinder women in unprecedented ways.

Breaking the glass ceiling: For one and all?

The current research challenges the assumption that the presence of women in leadership positions will automatically "break the glass ceiling" for other women. We contend that it is not just a female leader's presence, but also her performance, that influences evaluations of subsequent female candidates for leadership positions. We argue that the continued scarcity and perceived mismatch of women with high-level leadership increases gender salience, promoting perceptions of within-group similarity and fostering an evaluative generalization from the performance of a female leader to the evaluations of another, individual woman. In 5 studies, we demonstrate that the effect of exposure to a female leader on another woman's evaluations and leadership opportunities depends on whether she is successful or unsuccessful (Study 1) and whether she confirms or disconfirms stereotype-based expectations about women's leadership abilities (Study 2). Supporting the role of gender salience and shared group membership in the process, we show that this effect occurs only between women in male gender-typed leadership roles: Evaluative generalization does not occur between women in contexts that are not strongly male in gender type (Study 3) and is not observed between men in male-typed leadership (Study 4). We also explore whether there is evaluative generalization between male leaders in a female-typed context (Study 5). Our results suggest that overcoming gender imbalances in leadership may not be as simple as targeted placement, and that having women in high places should not induce complacency about the elimination of gender bias. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Are the Processes Underlying Discrimination the Same for Women and Men? A Critical Review of Congruity Models of Gender Discrimination.

Although classic congruity models of gender discrimination (e.g., role congruity theory, lack of fit) predict negative outcomes for both women and men in gender-incongruent domains, the literature has focused almost exclusively on discrimination against women. A number of recent studies have begun to address the question of whether and under what circumstances men can also be the targets of gender discrimination. However, the results of these studies have so far been mixed. Therefore, the question of whether men, like women, also suffer discrimination when in gender incongruent roles and domains remains unclear. The goal of the present paper is to integrate and critically examine the burgeoning literature on gender discrimination against men in order to assess whether the symmetrical predictions of congruity models are supported. Through this close analysis and integration of the literature, I aim to identify remaining gaps in the research on gender discrimination. In particular, I propose that researchers of gender discrimination would benefit from expanding their scope beyond that of paid work.

Brainstem variant of posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome: A case report.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is a clinico-radiological condition, generally observed in conjunction with severe and acute hypertension, that involves mainly the posterior head areas (occipital and temporal lobes) and anterior "watershed" areas. In this syndrome it is rare to observe a predominant involvement of the brainstem. We describe the clinical and radiological findings in a patient with brainstem involvement, discussing its pathophysiological features and possible differential diagnosis.

[The cerebral perivascular spaces: review of the literature on diffuse or focal expansion]. / Gli spazi perivascolari encefalici: revisione della letteratura sulle dilatazioni focali o diffuse.

Virchow-Robin spaces (VRS) are pial-lined, interstitial fluid-filled structures that do not directly communicate with the subarachnoid space, accompany penetrating arteries and veins and can be visualized on magnetic resonance imaging. This article reviews the imageology characteristics, the functions, the causes and the relation with neurological disorders of VRS.