Runoff and soil loss are drastically decreased in a rubber plantation combining the spreading of logging residues with a legume cover.

Soil erosion on agricultural land is a major threat for food and raw materials production. It has become a major concern in rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations introduced on sloping ground. Alternative agroecological crop management practices must be investigated. One aim of our study was to assess the ability of logging residues (i.e., trunks, branches, leaves and stumps of a clearcut plantation) and of legume cover (Pueraria phaseoloides) to mitigate N, P and K losses through runoff and soil detachment in a young rubber plantation. The other aim was to investigate the relationships of these nutrient losses with soil structure and soil macrofauna diversity. Runoff and soil loss were monitored for 3 years using 1-m2 plots under different practices as regards the management of logging residues and the use or not of a legume. The monitoring started when rubber trees were one-year-old. The planting row, where soil was bare, was the hotspot of soil erosion, with an average runoff of 832 mm y-1 and soil loss of 3.2 kg m-2 y-1. Sowing a legume in the inter-row reduced runoff and soil loss by 88 % and 98 % respectively, compared to bare soil. Spreading logging residues as well as growing a legume cover almost eliminated runoff and soil detachment (19 mm y-1 and 4 g m-2 y-1 respectively). Nutrient losses were negligible as long as the soil surface was covered by a legume crop, with or without logging residues. Total N loss from soil detachment ranged from 0.02 to 0.2 g m-2 y-1, for example. Spreading logging residues in the inter-rows significantly improved soil structure and soil macrofauna diversity compared to bare soil. Nutrient losses from runoff and soil detachment were negatively correlated with improved soil structure and soil macrofauna diversity. We recommend investigating alternative ways to manage planting rows.

Potential of Bioassays to Assess Consequences of Cultivation of Acacia mangium Trees on Nitrogen Bioavailability to Eucalyptus Trees: Two Case-Studies in Contrasting Tropical Soils.

We hypothesized that the nitrogen-fixing tree Acacia mangium could improve the growth and nitrogen nutrition of non-fixing tree species such as Eucalyptus. We measured the N-mineralization and respiration rates of soils sampled from plots covered with Acacia, Eucalyptus or native vegetation at two tropical sites (Itatinga in Brazil and Kissoko in the Congo) in the laboratory. We used a bioassay to assess N bioavailability to eucalypt seedlings grown with and without chemical fertilization for at least 6 months. At each site, Eucalyptus seedling growth and N bioavailability followed the same trends as the N-mineralization rates in soil samples. However, despite lower soil N-mineralization rates under Acacia in the Congo than in Brazil, Eucalyptus seedling growth and N bioavailability were much greater in the Congo, indicating that bioassays in pots are more accurate than N-mineralization rates when predicting the growth of eucalypt seedlings. Hence, in the Congo, planting Acacia mangium could be an attractive option to maintain the growth and N bioavailability of the non-fixing species Eucalyptus while decreasing chemical fertilization. Plant bioassays could help determine if the introduction of N2-fixing trees will improve the growth and mineral nutrition of non-fixing tree species in tropical planted forests.

Logging residues promote rapid restoration of soil health after clear-cutting of rubber plantations at two sites with contrasting soils in Africa.

Soil health is defined as the soil's capacity to deliver ecosystem functions within environmental constraints. On tree plantations, clear-cutting and land preparation between two crop cycles cause severe physical disturbances to the soil and seriously deplete soil organic carbon and biodiversity. Rubber, one of the main tropical perennial crops worldwide, has a plantation life cycle of 25 to 40 years, with successive replanting cycles on the same plot. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of clear-cutting disturbance on three soil functions (carbon transformation, nutrient cycling and structure maintenance) and their restoration after the planting of the new rubber crop, in two contrasting soil situations (Arenosol and Ferralsol) in Côte d'Ivoire. In this 18-month diachronic study, we intensively measured soil functions under different scenarios as regards the management of logging residues and the use or not of a legume cover crop. We investigated the relationship between soil macrofauna diversity and soil heath. At both sites, clear-cutting and land preparation disturbed carbon transformation and nutrient cycling significantly and, to a lesser extent, structure maintenance function. When logging residues were applied, carbon transformation and structure maintenance functions were fully restored within 12 to 18 months after disturbance. By contrast, no restoration of nutrient cycling was observed over the study period. A legume cover crop mainly improved the restoration of carbon transformation. We found a strong relationship (P ≤ 0.001; R2 = 0.62-0.66) between soil macrofauna diversity and soil health. Our overall results were very similar at the two sites, despite their contrasting soil conditions. Keeping logging residues in the plots and sowing a legume in the inter-row at replanting accelerated the restoration of soil functions after major disturbance caused by clear-cutting and land preparation. Our results confirm the necessity of taking soil macrofauna diversity into account in the management of tropical perennial crops.

Introducing N2-fixing trees (Acacia mangium) in eucalypt plantations rapidly modifies the pools of organic P and low molecular weight organic acids in tropical soils.

Many studies have shown that introducing N2-fixing trees (e.g. Acacia mangium) in eucalypt plantations can increase soil N availability as a result of biological N2 fixation and faster N cycling. Some studies have also shown improved eucalypt P nutrition. However, the effects of N2-fixing trees on P cycling in tropical soils remain poorly understood and site-dependent. Our study aimed to assess the effects of planting A. mangium trees in areas managed over several decades with eucalypt plantations on soil organic P (Po) forms and low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs). Soil samples were collected from two tropical sites, one in Brazil and one in the Congo. Five different treatments were sampled at each site: monospecific acacia, monospecific eucalypt, below acacias in mixed-species, below eucalypts in mixed-species as well as native vegetation. Po forms and LMWOAs were identified in sodium hydroxide soil extracts using ion chromatography and relationships between these data and available P were determined. At both sites, the concentrations of most Po forms and LMWOAs were different between native ecosystems and monospecific eucalypt and acacia plots. Also, patterns of Po and LMWOAs were clearly separated, with glucose-6-P found mainly under acacia and phytate and oxalate mainly under eucalypt. Despite the strongest changes occurred at site with a higher N2 fixation and root development, acacia introduction was able to change the profile of organic P and LMWOAs in <10 years. The variations between available Pi, Po and LMWOA forms showed that P cycling was dominated by different processes at each site, that are rather physicochemical (via Pi desorption after LMWOAs release) at Itatinga and biological (via organic P mineralization) at Kissoko. Specific patterns of Po and LMWOAs forms found in soil sampled under acacia or eucalypt would therefore explain the effect of acacia introduction in both sites.

Seasonality of nitrogen partitioning (non-structural vs structural) in the leaves and woody tissues of tropical eucalypts experiencing a marked dry season.

Numerous studies have shown that internal nitrogen (N) translocation in temperate tree species is governed by photoperiod duration and temperature. For tropical tree species, the seasonality of rainfall is known to affect growth and foliage production, suggesting that efficient internal N recycling also occurs throughout the year. We tested this hypothesis by comparing the N budgets and N partitioning (non-structural vs structural N) in the different organs of 7-year-old Eucalyptus urophylla (S.T. Blake) × E. grandis (W. Hill ex Maiden) trees from a plantation in coastal Congo on poor sandy soil. The trees were sampled at the end of the dry season and late in the rainy season. Lower N concentrations and N investment in the non-structural fraction were observed in leaves during the dry season, which indicates resorption of non-structural N from senescing leaves. Stem wood, which contributes to about 60% of the total biomass of the trees, accumulated high amounts of non-structural N at the end of the dry season, most of which was remobilized during the following rainy season. These results support the hypothesis of efficient internal N recycling, which may be an important determinant for the growth potential of eucalypts on N-poor soils. Harvesting trees late in the rainy season when stem wood is depleted in non-structural N should be recommended to limit the export of nutrients off-site and to improve the sustainability of tropical eucalypt plantations.

Transpiration alters the contribution of autotrophic and heterotrophic components of soil CO2 efflux.

• An unbiased partitioning of autotrophic and heterotrophic components of soil CO(2) efflux is important to estimate forest carbon budgets and soil carbon sequestration. The contribution of autotrophic sources to soil CO(2) efflux (F(A)) may be underestimated during the daytime as a result of internal transport of CO(2) produced by root respiration through the transpiration stream. • Here, we tested the hypothesis that carbon isotope composition of soil CO(2) efflux (δ(FS)) in a Eucalyptus plantation grown on a C(4) soil is enriched during the daytime, which will indicate a decrease in F(A) during the periods of high transpiration. • Mean δ(FS) of soil CO(2) efflux decreased to -25.7‰ during the night and increased to -24.7‰ between 11:00 and 15:00 h when the xylem sap flux density was at its maximum. • Our results indicate a decrease in the contribution of root respiration to soil CO(2) efflux during the day that may be interpreted as a departure of root-produced CO(2) in the transpiration stream, leading to a 17% underestimation of autotrophic contribution to soil CO(2) efflux on a daily timescale.