Twenty Years of Subcutaneous Interferon-Beta-1a for Multiple Sclerosis: Contemporary Perspectives.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, progressive, inflammatory disorder of the central nervous system. Relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), the most common form of the disease, is characterized by transient neurological dysfunction with concurrent accumulation of disability. Over the past three decades, disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) capable of reducing the frequency of relapses and slowing disability worsening have been studied and approved for use in patients with RRMS. The first DMTs were interferon-betas (IFN-ßs), which were approved in the 1990s. Among them was IFN-ß-1a for subcutaneous (sc) injection (Rebif®), which was approved for the treatment of MS in Europe and Canada in 1998 and in the USA in 2002. Twenty years of clinical data and experience have supported the efficacy and safety of IFN-ß-1a sc in the treatment of RRMS, including pivotal trials, real-world data, and extension studies lasting up to 15 years past initial treatment. Today, IFN-ß-1a sc remains an important therapeutic option in clinical use, especially around pregnancy planning and lactation, and may also be considered for aging patients, in which MS activity declines and long-term immunosuppression associated with some alternative therapies is a concern. In addition, IFN-ß-1a sc is used as a comparator in many clinical studies and provides a framework for research into the mechanisms by which MS begins and progresses.

Blood-based targeted metabolipidomics reveals altered omega fatty acid-derived lipid mediators in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis patients.

Unresolved and uncontrolled inflammation is considered a hallmark of pathogenesis in chronic inflammatory diseases like multiple sclerosis (MS), suggesting a defective resolution process. Inflammatory resolution is an active process partially mediated by endogenous metabolites of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), collectively termed specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators (SPMs). Altered levels of resolution mediators have been reported in several inflammatory diseases and may partly explain impaired inflammatory resolution. Performing LC-MS/MS-based targeted lipid mediator profiling, we observed distinct changes in fatty acid metabolites in serum from 30 relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) patients relative to 30 matched healthy subjects (HS). Robust linear regression revealed 12 altered lipid mediators after adjusting for confounders (p <0.05). Of these, 15d-PGJ2, PGE3, and LTB5 were increased in MS while PGF2a, 8,9-DiHETrE, 5,6-DiHETrE, 20-HETE, 15-HETE, 12-HETE, 12-HEPE, 14-HDoHE, and DHEA were decreased in MS compared to HS. In addition, 12,13-DiHOME and 12,13-DiHODE were positively correlated with expanded disability status scale values (EDSS). Using Partial Least Squares, we identified several lipid mediators with high VIP scores (VIP > 1: 32% - 52%) of which POEA, PGE3, DHEA, LTB5, and 12-HETE were top predictors for distinguishing between RRMS and HS (AUC =0.75) based on the XGBoost Classifier algorithm. Collectively, these findings suggest an imbalance between inflammation and resolution. Altogether, lipid mediators appear to have potential as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for RRMS.

IL-11 induces NLRP3 inflammasome activation in monocytes and inflammatory cell migration to the central nervous system.

The objective of this study is to examine IL-11-induced mechanisms of inflammatory cell migration to the central nervous system (CNS). We report that IL-11 is produced at highest frequency by myeloid cells among the peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) subsets. Patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) have an increased frequency of IL-11+ monocytes, IL-11+ and IL-11R+ CD4+ lymphocytes, and IL-11R+ neutrophils in comparison to matched healthy controls. IL-11+ and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)+ monocytes, CD4+ lymphocytes, and neutrophils accumulate in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The effect of IL-11 in-vitro stimulation, examined using single-cell RNA sequencing, revealed the highest number of differentially expressed genes in classical monocytes, including up-regulated NFKB1, NLRP3, and IL1B. All CD4+ cell subsets had increased expression of S100A8/9 alarmin genes involved in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. In IL-11R+-sorted cells from the CSF, classical and intermediate monocytes significantly up-regulated the expression of multiple NLRP3 inflammasome-related genes, including complement, IL18, and migratory genes (VEGFA/B) in comparison to blood-derived cells. Therapeutic targeting of this pathway with αIL-11 mAb in mice with RR experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) decreased clinical scores, CNS inflammatory infiltrates, and demyelination. αIL-11 mAb treatment decreased the numbers of NFκBp65+, NLRP3+, and IL-1ß+ monocytes in the CNS of mice with EAE. The results suggest that IL-11/IL-11R signaling in monocytes represents a therapeutic target in RRMS.

Therapeutic Effect of Anti-CD52 Monoclonal Antibody in Multiple Sclerosis and Its Animal Models Is Mediated via T Regulatory Cells.

The objective of this study is to determine the mechanism of action of anti-CD52 mAb treatment in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of the disease, was used to address the role of T regulatory cells (Tregs) in the anti-CD52 mAb-induced suppression of the disease. In vitro studies on PBMCs from RRMS patients and matched healthy controls determined the effect of IL-7 on the expansion of CD4+CD25+CD127- Tregs and induction of their suppressive phenotype. This study using EAE animal models of MS has shown that mouse anti-CD52 mAb suppression of clinical disease was augmented by coadministration of IL-7 and partially reversed by anti-IL-7 mAb. In vitro human studies showed that IL-7 induced expansion of CD4+CD25+CD127- Tregs and increased their FOXP3, GITIR, CD46, CTLA-4, granzyme B, and perforin expression. Anti-CD52 mAb treatment of mice with relapsing-remitting EAE induced expansion of Foxp3+CD4+ Tregs and the suppression of IL-17A+CD4+ and IFN-γ+CD4+ cells in peripheral immune organs and CNS infiltrates. The effect was detected immediately after the treatment and maintained over long-term follow-up. Foxp3+CD4+ Treg-mediated suppression of IL-17A+CD4+ and IFN-γ+CD4+ cells in the spinal cord infiltrates was reversed after inducible Foxp3 depletion. Our results demonstrated that the therapeutic effect of U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved anti-CD52 mAb is dependent on the presence of Tregs.

STING Agonist Mitigates Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis by Stimulating Type I IFN-Dependent and -Independent Immune-Regulatory Pathways.

The cGAS-cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP)-stimulator of IFN genes (STING) pathway induces a powerful type I IFN (IFN-I) response and is a prime candidate for augmenting immunity in cancer immunotherapy and vaccines. IFN-I also has immune-regulatory functions manifested in several autoimmune diseases and is a first-line therapy for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. However, it is only moderately effective and can induce adverse effects and neutralizing Abs in recipients. Targeting cGAMP in autoimmunity is unexplored and represents a challenge because of the intracellular location of its receptor, STING. We used microparticle (MP)-encapsulated cGAMP to increase cellular delivery, achieve dose sparing, and reduce potential toxicity. In the C57BL/6 experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, cGAMP encapsulated in MPs (cGAMP MPs) administered therapeutically protected mice from EAE in a STING-dependent fashion, whereas soluble cGAMP was ineffective. Protection was also observed in a relapsing-remitting model. Importantly, cGAMP MPs protected against EAE at the peak of disease and were more effective than rIFN-ß. Mechanistically, cGAMP MPs showed both IFN-I-dependent and -independent immunosuppressive effects. Furthermore, it induced the immunosuppressive cytokine IL-27 without requiring IFN-I. This augmented IL-10 expression through activated ERK and CREB. IL-27 and subsequent IL-10 were the most important cytokines to mitigate autoreactivity. Critically, cGAMP MPs promoted IFN-I as well as the immunoregulatory cytokines IL-27 and IL-10 in PBMCs from relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis patients. Collectively, this study reveals a previously unappreciated immune-regulatory effect of cGAMP that can be harnessed to restrain T cell autoreactivity.

The TGF-ß superfamily cytokine Activin-A is induced during autoimmune neuroinflammation and drives pathogenic Th17 cell differentiation.

Th17 cells are known to exert pathogenic and non-pathogenic functions. Although the cytokine transforming growth factor ß1 (TGF-ß1) is instrumental for Th17 cell differentiation, it is dispensable for generation of pathogenic Th17 cells. Here, we examined the T cell-intrinsic role of Activin-A, a TGF-ß superfamily member closely related to TGF-ß1, in pathogenic Th17 cell differentiation. Activin-A expression was increased in individuals with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis and in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Stimulation with interleukin-6 and Activin-A induced a molecular program that mirrored that of pathogenic Th17 cells and was inhibited by blocking Activin-A signaling. Genetic disruption of Activin-A and its receptor ALK4 in T cells impaired pathogenic Th17 cell differentiation in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation, which was essential for pathogenic Th17 cell differentiation, was suppressed by TGF-ß1-ALK5 but not Activin-A-ALK4 signaling. Thus, Activin-A drives pathogenic Th17 cell differentiation, implicating the Activin-A-ALK4-ERK axis as a therapeutic target for Th17 cell-related diseases.

Dalfampridine for Mobility Limitations in People With Multiple Sclerosis May Be Augmented by Physical Therapy: A Non-randomized Two-Group Proof-of-Concept Pilot Study.

Purpose: To demonstrate proof-of-concept for a combined physical therapy and pharmacological intervention and obtain preliminary estimates of the therapeutic efficacy of a motor-relearning physical therapy intervention with and without concurrent dalfampridine treatment on gait speed in people with mobility limitations due to multiple sclerosis (MS). Methods: Using a non-randomized, two-group design, 4 individuals with MS newly prescribed dalfampridine as part of their routine medical care, and 4 individuals with MS not taking dalfampridine completed a 3-week drug run-in or no-treatment baseline, respectively. After 3 weeks, all participants commenced physical therapy twice weekly for 6 weeks. Participants taking dalfampridine took the medication for the study duration. The physical therapy program comprised functional strengthening, gait training, balance training, and dual-task training. The primary outcome was Timed 25-foot Walk (T25FW) at the end of the 6-week physical therapy program. Results: For the 4 participants taking dalfampridine, average improvement in T25FW on drug only was 12.8% (95% CI 1.2 to 24.4%). During the 6-week physical therapy phase, both groups significantly improved T25FW, but the effect tended to favor the group taking dalfampridine (mean difference = -0.93 s, 95% CI -1.9 to 0.07 s, p = 0.064, d = 1.6). Whereas the physical therapy group had average T25FW improvement of 10.8% (95% CI 1.0 to 20.5%), the physical therapy plus dalfampridine group demonstrated average improvement of 20.7% (95% CI 3.8 to 37.6%). Conclusions: Further research is warranted to examine whether dalfampridine for mobility impairment may be augmented by physical therapy in people with MS.

IL-11 Induces Encephalitogenic Th17 Cells in Multiple Sclerosis and Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

IL-11+CD4+ cells accumulate in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with early relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS) and in active brain MS lesions. Mouse studies have confirmed a causal role of IL-11 in the exacerbation of relapsing-remitting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (RREAE). Administration of IL-11 at the time of clinical onset of RREAE induced an acute exacerbation and increased clinical scores, which persisted during the entire course of the disease. IL-11 increased the numbers of spinal cord inflammatory foci, as well as the numbers of peripheral and CNS-infiltrating IL-17+CD4+ cells and IL-17A serum levels. Ag recall assays revealed that IL-11 induces IL-17A+, GM-CSF+, and IL-21+CD4+ myelin Ag-reactive cells. Passive transfer of these encephalitogenic CD4+ T cells induced severe RREAE with IL-17A+CCR6+ CD4+ and B cell accumulation within the CNS. Furthermore, passive transfer of nonmanipulated CNS-derived mononuclear cells from mice with RREAE after a single dose of IL-11 induced severe RREAE with increased accumulation of IL-17A+ and CCR6+ CD4+ cells within the CNS. These results suggest that IL-11 might serve as a biomarker of early autoimmune response and a selective therapeutic target for patients with early relapsing-remitting MS.

Case Report: Combining Dalfampridine with Multicomponent Exercise and Gait Training in a Person with Multiple Sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Dalfampridine extended release (D-ER) improves gait speed in some people with multiple sclerosis (MS), but many patients who take D-ER demonstrate only small improvements of questionable clinical significance. Physical therapy (PT) may augment the treatment effects of D-ER on the nervous system and improve clinical outcomes. This case report describes the successful use of D-ER combined with multicomponent PT in a patient who did not have a clinically important change in gait speed with D-ER alone. METHODS: A 59-year-old woman with a 6-year history of relapsing-remitting MS was prescribed D-ER by her neurologist. After 3 weeks of D-ER therapy (10 mg twice daily), she demonstrated only a 7.1% improvement in the Timed 25-Foot Walk test. She then commenced PT consisting of two 40-minute sessions per week for 6 weeks while continuing D-ER therapy. Training focused on gait, balance, coordination, functional strengthening, and dual-task performance. RESULTS: After 6 weeks of D-ER + PT, she had a further 14.6% improvement in Timed 25-Foot Walk gait speed, for a total improvement of 20.7%, which elevated her above the clinically meaningful threshold of 20%. Similar patterns of improvement were also observed for self-selected gait speed in single- and dual-task conditions. Improvements in fast and dual-task gait speed were retained 3 weeks later. CONCLUSIONS: For this patient, combining PT with D-ER therapy improved gait speed more than the use of D-ER alone. Further investigation of D-ER + PT or PT as an alternative to D-ER in patients with submeaningful medication response is warranted.

IL-11 antagonist suppresses Th17 cell-mediated neuroinflammation and demyelination in a mouse model of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis.

IL-11 induced differentiation and expansion of Th17 cells in patients with early relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). In mice with relapsing-remitting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (RREAE), IL-11 exacerbated disease, induced demyelination in the central nervous system (CNS), increased the percentage of IL-17A+CD4+ Th17 cells in the CNS in the early acute phase, and up-regulated serum IL-17A levels and the percentage of IL-17A+CD4+ Th17 cells in lymph nodes, and IFN-γ+CD4+ T cells in spinal cord in the RR phase. IL-11 antagonist suppressed RREAE disease activities, inhibited IL-17A+CD4+ cell infiltration and demyelination in the CNS, and decreased the percentage of IL-17A+CD4+ T cells in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and ICAM1+CD4+ T cells in brain and SC. Diffusion Tensor Imaging indicated that IL-11 antagonist inhibited demyelination in several brain regions. We conclude that by suppressing Th17 cell-mediated neuroinflammation and demyelination, IL-11 antagonist can be further studied as a potential selective and early therapy for RRMS.

Activated IL-1RI Signaling Pathway Induces Th17 Cell Differentiation via Interferon Regulatory Factor 4 Signaling in Patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis.

IL-1ß plays a crucial role in the differentiation of human Th17 cells. We report here that IL-1RI expression is significantly increased in both naive and memory CD4+ T cells derived from relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RR MS) patients in comparison to healthy controls. Interleukin 1 receptor (IL-1R)I expression is upregulated in the in vitro-differentiated Th17 cells from RR MS patients in comparison to the Th1 and Th2 cell subsets, indicating the role of IL-1R signaling in the Th17 cell differentiation in RR MS. When IL-1RI gene expression was silenced using siRNA, human naive CD4+ T cells cultured in the presence of Th17-polarizing cytokines had a significantly decreased expression of interleukin regulatory factor 4 (IRF4), RORc, IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, and IL-23R genes, confirming that IL-1RI signaling induces Th17 cell differentiation. Since IL-1R gene expression silencing inhibited IRF4 expression and Th17 differentiation, and IRF4 gene expression silencing inhibited Th17 cell differentiation, our results indicate that IL-1RI induces human Th17 cell differentiation in an IRF4-dependant manner. Our study has identified that IL-1RI-mediated signaling pathway is constitutively activated, leading to an increased Th17 cell differentiation in IRF4-dependent manner in patients with RR MS.

Toll-like receptor (TLR)7 and TLR9 agonists enhance interferon (IFN) beta-1a's immunoregulatory effects on B cells in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS).

We report that B cells from patients with RRMS have decreased endogenous IFN-ß secretion and deficient IFN receptor (IFNAR)1/2 and TLR7 gene expression in comparison to healthy controls (HCs), which may contribute to disregulation of cytokine secretion by B cells. We propose that TLR7 and TLR9 stimulation with loxorubin (LOX) and CpG, in combination with exogenous IFN-ß may effectively reconstitute endogenous IFN-ß production deficit and induce the secretion of immunoregulatory cytokines by B cells. Both LOX/IFN-ß and CpG/IFN-ß in-vitro treatments of B cells from RRMS patients induced higher endogenous IFN-ß gene expression in comparison to the exogenous IFN-ß alone. CpG/IFN-ß combination induced higher secretion of IL-10, TGF-ß, and IL-27 in comparison to stimulation with IFN-ß. Our study provides a basis for future clinical studies employing IFN-ß and TLR7/9 agonists, which may enhance the resolution of the inflammatory response in RRMS.

Immunologic and MRI markers of the therapeutic effect of IFN-ß-1a in relapsing-remitting MS.

OBJECTIVES: To assess potential roles of effector cells and immunologic markers in demyelinating CNS lesion formation, and their modulation by interferon ß-1a (IFN-ß-1a). METHODS: Twenty-three patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) received IFN-ß-1a for 6 months. Immunologic marker results were correlated with brain MRI lesion volumes, and volumes of normal-appearing brain tissue (NABT) with decreasing or increasing voxel-wise magnetization transfer ratio (VW-MTR), suggestive of demyelination and remyelination, respectively. RESULTS: Baseline expression of Th22 cell transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and interleukin (IL)-17F, and percentages of IL-22-expressing CD4(+) and CD8(+) cells, were significantly higher in patients vs 15 healthy controls; IL-4 in CD4(+) cells was lower. Baseline percentage of IL-22-producing CD8(+) cells positively correlated with T2 lesion volumes, while percentage of IL-17A-producing CD8(+) cells positively correlated with T2 and T1 lesion volumes. IFN-ß-1a induced reductions in transcription factor AHR, T-bet, and retinoic acid-related orphan nuclear hormone receptor C (RORc) gene expression, while it increased GATA3's expression in CD4(+) cells. Percentages of IL-22-, IL-17A-, and IL-17F-expressing T cells significantly decreased following treatment. Increased percentages of IL-10-expressing CD4(+) and CD8(+) cells correlated with greater NABT volume with increasing VW-MTR, while decreased percentage of IL-17F-expressing CD4(+) cells positively correlated with decreased NABT volume with decreasing VW-MTR. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that IFN-ß-1a suppresses Th22 and Th17 cell responses, which were associated with decreased MRI-detectable demyelination. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This pilot study provides Class III evidence that reduced Th22 and Th17 responses are associated with decreased demyelination following IFN-ß-1a treatment in patients with RRMS.

Immunological and short-term brain volume changes in relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis treated with interferon beta-1a subcutaneously three times weekly: an open-label two-arm trial.

BACKGROUND: Brain volume atrophy is observed in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). METHODS: Brain volume changes were evaluated in 23 patients with RRMS treated with interferon ß-1a 44 µg given subcutaneously (SC) three times a week (tiw) and 15 healthy controls. Percentages of whole brain and tissue-specific volume change were measured from baseline (0 months) to 3 months, from 3 to 6 months, and from baseline to 6 months using SIENAX Multi Time Point (SX-MTP) algorithms. Immunological status of patients was also determined and correlations between subsets of T cells and changes in brain volume were assessed. RESULTS: Interferon ß-1a 44 µg SC tiw in 23 patients with RRMS resulted in significant reductions in whole brain and gray matter tissue volume early in the treatment course (baseline to 3 months; mean change; -0.95%; P = 0.030, -1.52%; P = 0.004, respectively), suggesting a short-term treatment-induced pseudoatrophy effect. From baseline to 6 months, there were significant correlations observed between decreased T- cell expression of IL-17 F and decreased whole brain and brain tissue-specific volume. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are consistent with the interpretation of the pseudoatrophy effect as resolution of inflammation following treatment initiation with interferon ß-1a 44 µg SC tiw, rather than disease-related tissue loss. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov; NCT01085318.

A pilot, longitudinal, 24-week study to evaluate the effect of interferon beta-1a subcutaneous on changes in susceptibility-weighted imaging-filtered phase assessment of lesions and subcortical deep-gray matter in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Studies have shown a relationship between increased iron content and clinical progression, cognitive impairment, and brain atrophy in patients with multiple sclerosis. Altered phase, as determined by susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI), can potentially capture iron content changes. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate phase changes in white matter (WM) lesions and subcortical deep-gray matter (SDGM) of patients with relapsing-remitting (RR) MS treated with interferon beta-1a administered subcutaneously versus untreated healthy controls (HCs). METHODS: We conducted a 24-week, nonrandomized, open-label pilot study of 23 patients with RRMS receiving interferon beta-1a administered subcutaneously and 15 HCs. Patients were imaged on a 3T scanner at baseline, 12, and 24 weeks; changes in phase behavior in WM lesions and regional SDGM [mean phase of low-phase voxels (MP-LPV)], and in SDGM volumes, were measured. Between- and within-group changes were tested using nonparametric statistics adjusted for multiple comparisons. RESULTS: The number (p = 0.003) and volume (p < 0.001) of phase WM lesions both significantly decreased among RRMS patients over 24 weeks. At baseline, MP-LPV was lower (suggestive of greater iron content) in total SDGM among RRMS patients versus HCs (p = 0.002). Week 24 MP-LPV changes from baseline were not significantly different between groups in total SDGM or any region except the putamen (-0.0025 radians in RRMS patients versus 0.0035 radians in HCs; p = 0.041). CONCLUSIONS: Over 24 weeks, phase lesions were reduced significantly in the RRMS group. These preliminary results suggest that SWI-filtered phase may become a useful tool for monitoring RRMS disease activity.

Associations between changes in ferritin levels and susceptibility-weighted imaging filtered phase in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis over 24 weeks of therapy with subcutaneous interferon beta-1a three times weekly.

Subanalysis of a pilot study (NCT01085318) assessed correlations between serum ferritin and imaging assessments in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis patients (n = 23) receiving 44 µg interferon beta-1a subcutaneously three times weekly. At baseline, 12, and 24 weeks, mean ferritin was 75, 127 (p < 0.001 vs baseline), and 101 (p=0.020 vs baseline) ng/mL. No relationship between ferritin and susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI)-filtered phase of subcortical deep gray matter was found. Increasing ferritin correlated with decreasing lesion numbers on both fluid attenuated inversion recovery and SWI phase at 12 weeks (r = -0.62; p = 0.003; n = 21), and with decreasing gadolinium-enhancing lesion volume at 24 weeks (r = -0.71; p = 0.050; n = 8).

Immunomodulatory therapies for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: monoclonal antibodies, currently approved and in testing.

Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), a CNS inflammatory demyelinating disease, is one of the most prevalent causes of chronic disability in young adults. Studies of the disease pathogenesis have identified multiple therapeutic targets. The number of approved disease modifying therapies has almost doubled within the past 5 years, which creates a challenge for medical professionals to stay abreast of their use in everyday practice. This manuscript provides an overview of available injectable, oral, and intravenous therapies for RRMS, and offers guidance in selecting an appropriate therapy. Focus is on the recently approved and emerging monoclonal antibody therapies, because they offer more selective and superior therapeutic efficacy compared with injectable and oral disease modifying therapies. We discuss the outlook for monoclonal antibodies and their role in RRMS treatment in the future.

IL-11 Induces Th17 Cell Responses in Patients with Early Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis.

Clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) suggestive of multiple sclerosis (MS) is the earliest clinically evident phase of the disease, which may provide valuable insight into the molecular mechanisms of the initiation of the autoimmune response in MS. Our results introduce IL-11 as a new cytokine that plays a role in the autoimmune response in the early phase of the disease. IL-11 is the highest upregulated cytokine in the sera and cerebrospinal fluid from CIS patients, which is also increased in patients with clinically definitive relapsing-remitting MS in comparison with healthy control subjects. Serum IL-11 levels are significantly increased during clinical exacerbations in comparison with remissions in the same patients. CD4(+) cells represent a predominant cell source of IL-11 in the peripheral circulation, and the percentage of IL-11(+)CD4(+) cells is significantly increased in CIS patients in comparison with healthy control subjects. Furthermore, we have identified IL-11 as a new Th17-promoting cytokine, because it induces a differentiation of naive CD4(+) T cells into Th17 cells, as well as expansion of Th17 memory cells. Because the Th17 cytokines IL-17F, IL-21 and TNF-α, and TGF-ß induce differentiation of naive cells in the IL-11-secreting CD4(+) cells, we propose that cross-talk between IL-11(+)CD4(+) and Th17 cells may play a role in the inflammatory response in relapsing-remitting MS.