Contributions of Non-Neuronal Cholinergic Systems to the Regulation of Immune Cell Function, Highlighting the Role of α7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors.

Loewi's discovery of acetylcholine (ACh) release from the frog vagus nerve and the discovery by Dale and Dudley of ACh in ox spleen led to the demonstration of chemical transmission of nerve impulses. ACh is now well-known to function as a neurotransmitter. However, advances in the techniques for ACh detection have led to its discovery in many lifeforms lacking a nervous system, including eubacteria, archaea, fungi, and plants. Notably, mRNAs encoding choline acetyltransferase and muscarinic and nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs) have been found in uninnervated mammalian cells, including immune cells, keratinocytes, vascular endothelial cells, cardiac myocytes, respiratory, and digestive epithelial cells. It thus appears that non-neuronal cholinergic systems are expressed in a variety of mammalian cells, and that ACh should now be recognized not only as a neurotransmitter, but also as a local regulator of non-neuronal cholinergic systems. Here, we discuss the role of non-neuronal cholinergic systems, with a focus on immune cells. A current focus of much research on non-neuronal cholinergic systems in immune cells is α7 nAChRs, as these receptors expressed on macrophages and T cells are involved in regulating inflammatory and immune responses. This makes α7 nAChRs an attractive potential therapeutic target.

GTS-21 Enhances Regulatory T Cell Development from T Cell Receptor-Activated Human CD4+ T Cells Exhibiting Varied Levels of CHRNA7 and CHRFAM7A Expression.

Immune cells such as T cells and macrophages express α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7 nAChRs), which contribute to the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses. Earlier findings suggest α7 nAChR activation promotes the development of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in mice. Using human CD4+ T cells, we investigated the mRNA expression of the α7 subunit and the human-specific dupα7 nAChR subunit, which functions as a dominant-negative regulator of ion channel function, under resting conditions and T cell receptor (TCR)-activation. We then explored the effects of the selective α7 nAChR agonist GTS-21 on proliferation of TCR-activated T cells and Treg development. Varied levels of mRNA for both the α7 and dupα7 nAChR subunits were detected in resting human CD4+ T cells. mRNA expression of the α7 nAChR subunit was profoundly suppressed on days 4 and 7 of TCR-activation as compared to day 1, whereas mRNA expression of the dupα7 nAChR subunit remained nearly constant. GTS-21 did not alter CD4+ T cell proliferation but significantly promoted Treg development. These results suggest the potential ex vivo utility of GTS-21 for preparing Tregs for adoptive immunotherapy, even with high expression of the dupα7 subunit.

Importance of two-dimensional cation clusters induced by protein folding in intrinsic intracellular membrane permeability.

We investigated the cell penetration of Sp1 zinc finger proteins (Sp1 ZF) and the mechanism via which the total cationic charge and distribution of cationic residues on the protein surface affect intracellular trafficking. Sp1 ZFs showed intrinsic cell membrane permeability. The intracellular transfer of Sp1 ZFs other than 1F3 was dependent on the total cationic charge. Investigation of the effect of cationic residue distribution on intracellular membrane permeability revealed that the cellular uptake of unfolded Zn2+-non-coordinating Ala mutants was lower than that of the wild type. Therefore, the total cationic charge and distribution of cationic residues on the protein played crucial roles in intracellular translocation. Mutational studies revealed that the two-dimensional cation cluster on the protein surface significantly improved their cellular uptake. This study will contribute to the design of artificial cargoes that can efficiently transport target substances into cells.

Effects of ceramide kinase knockout on lipopolysaccharide-treated sepsis-model mice: Changes in serum cytokine/chemokine levels and increased lethality.

Ceramide, a central molecule of sphingolipid metabolism, is phosphorylated to ceramide-1-phosphate (C1P) by ceramide kinase (CerK). The CerK/C1P pathway regulates many cellular functions, but its roles in immune/inflammation-related (IIR) diseases in vivo are not well known. Sepsis is an acute systemic inflammatory disease accompanied by damage/dysfunction in multiple organs. In the present study, we investigated the effects of CerK knockout on the onset/progression of sepsis-related events in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated sepsis-model mice. In CerK-null mice, the lethality at 48 h after i.v. injection of LPS was significantly increased compared with that in wild-type (WT) mice. The increased lethality by CerK knockout was reproduced in mice treated with i.p. injections of LPS. Changes in serum levels of 23 IIR molecules, including cytokines and chemokines, were measured. In WT mice, levels of these molecules increased 4 and/or 20 h after i.v. injection of LPS. Although the basal levels of IIR molecules were not affected, LPS-induced increases in interleukin-17 (IL-17), C-C motif chemokine ligands (CCL-2 and CCL-11), and tumor necrosis factor-α were significantly up-regulated, whereas IL-2 levels were slightly down-regulated by CerK knockout. Putative mechanisms for the CerK/C1P pathway-mediated regulation of IIR molecules and increased lethality in LPS-treated mice are discussed.

PARP14 regulates EP4 receptor expression in human colon cancer HCA-7 cells.

E type prostanoid 4 (EP4) receptors and their signaling pathways have been implicated in the development and malignant transformation of colorectal cancer. We herein demonstrated that the mono(ADP-ribosyl)ation of histone deacetylase (HDAC)1 and HDAC2 by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 14 (PARP14) may be required to induce the expression of EP4 receptors. The suppression of PARP14 activity by siRNA and/or its inhibitors reduced the mRNA expression of EP4 receptors. Thus, the expression of their proteins to approximately 50-80% in human colon cancer HCA-7 cells, however, which retained the activities of EP4 receptors to some extent. Since the expression levels of EP4 receptors are important factors for the maintenance of homeostasis, the adequate inhibition of PARP14 activity will be a good target for the prevention of colon cancer and/or as an alternative therapy for this disease. Since non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are associated with a risk of heart attacks and stroke, novel PARP14 inhibitors will supersede NSAIDs without causing heart attacks and stroke, while maintaining appropriate EP4 receptor-mediated intestinal homeostasis.

Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerase 1 Mediates Rab5 Inactivation after DNA Damage.

Parthanatos is programmed cell death mediated by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) after DNA damage. PARP1 acts by catalyzing the transfer of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) polymers to various nuclear proteins. PAR is subsequently cleaved, generating protein-free PAR polymers, which are translocated to the cytoplasm where they associate with cytoplasmic and mitochondrial proteins, altering their functions and leading to cell death. Proteomic studies revealed that several proteins involved in endocytosis bind PAR after PARP1 activation, suggesting endocytosis may be affected by the parthanatos process. Endocytosis is a mechanism for cellular uptake of membrane-impermeant nutrients. Rab5, a small G-protein, is associated with the plasma membrane and early endosomes. Once activated by binding GTP, Rab5 recruits its effectors to early endosomes and regulates their fusion. Here, we report that after DNA damage, PARP1-generated PAR binds to Rab5, suppressing its activity. As a result, Rab5 is dissociated from endosomal vesicles, inhibiting the uptake of membrane-impermeant nutrients. This PARP1-dependent inhibition of nutrient uptake leads to cell starvation and death. It thus appears that this mechanism may represent a novel parthanatos pathway.

Non-neuronal Cholinergic Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors in the Regulation of Immune Function.

Immune cells such as T and B cells, monocytes and macrophages all express most of the cholinergic components of the nervous system, including acetylcholine (ACh), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), high affinity choline transporter, muscarinic and nicotinic ACh receptors (mAChRs and nAChRs, respectively), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Because of its efficient cleavage by AChE, ACh synthesized and released from immune cells acts only locally in an autocrine and/or paracrine fashion at mAChRs and nAChRs on themselves and other immune cells located in close proximity, leading to modification of immune function. Immune cells generally express all five mAChR subtypes (M1-M5) and neuron type nAChR subunits α2-α7, α9, α10, ß2-ß4. The expression pattern and levels of mAChR subtypes and nAChR subunits vary depending on the tissue involved and its immunological status. Immunological activation of T cells via T-cell receptor-mediated pathways and cell adhesion molecules upregulates ChAT expression, which facilitates the synthesis and release of ACh. At present, α7 nAChRs expressed in macrophages are receiving much attention because they play a central role in anti-inflammatory cholinergic pathways. However, it now appears that through modification of cytokine synthesis, Gq/11-coupled mAChRs play a prominent role in regulation of T cell proliferation and differentiation and B cell immunoglobulin class switching. It is anticipated that greater understanding of Gq/11-coupled mAChRs on immune cells will provide an opportunity to develop new and effective treatments for immunological disorders.

Down-regulation of the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and prostaglandin E2 by interleukin-4 is mediated via a reduction in the expression of prostanoid EP4 receptors in HCA-7 human colon cancer cells.

Chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which is characterized by prolonged inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer. Recent studies revealed that the pathology of IBD is caused by hyperactivated immune responses mediated by differentiated CD4+ naïve helper T cells, such as Th1 and Th17 cells, but not Th2 cells. The human E-type prostanoid 4 (EP4) receptor and its pathways have also been implicated in and/or associated with the early developmental stages of colorectal cancer along with increases in the levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the hallmarks of colorectal carcinogenesis. In the present study, using an in silico analysis and pharmacological experiments, we demonstrated that interleukin (IL)-4, a signature cytokine of Th2 cells, down-regulated the expression of COX-2 and PGE2 in the human colon cancer cell line, HCA-7. This result may be attributed to a reduction in the expression of prostanoid EP4 receptors through the induction of hypoxia inducible factor-1α via the interleukin-4 receptor-stimulated activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 6. However, another major Th2 cytokine IL-13 had no effect on the expression of COX-2 or prostanoid EP4 receptors in HCA-7 cells. Therefore, instead of the hyperactivation of Th1/Th17 cells, the deactivation/down-regulation of Th2 cells followed by a decrease in the production of IL-4 in IBD may play a role in the cancerous transformation of cells, at least in prostanoid EP4 receptor-overactivated tumorigenesis.

Tankyrase Regulates Neurite Outgrowth through Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation-Dependent Activation of ß-Catenin Signaling.

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is a post-translational modification of proteins by transferring poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) to acceptor proteins by the action of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). Two tankyrase (TNKS) isoforms, TNK1 and TNK2 (TNKS1/2), are ubiquitously expressed in mammalian cells and participate in diverse cellular functions, including wnt/ß-catenin signaling, telomere maintenance, glucose metabolism and mitosis regulation. For wnt/ß-catenin signaling, TNKS1/2 catalyze poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation of Axin, a key component of the ß-catenin degradation complex, which allows Axin's ubiquitination and subsequent degradation, thereby activating ß-catenin signaling. In the present study, we focused on the functions of TNKS1/2 in neuronal development. In primary hippocampal neurons, TNKS1/2 were detected in the soma and neurites, where they co-localized with PAR signals. Treatment with XAV939, a selective TNKS1/2 inhibitor, suppressed neurite outgrowth and synapse formation. In addition, XAV939 also suppressed norepinephrine uptake in PC12 cells, a rat pheochromocytoma cell line. These effects likely resulted from the inhibition of ß-catenin signaling through the stabilization of Axin, which suggests TNKS1/2 enhance Axin degradation by modifying its poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, thereby stabilizing wnt/ß-catenin signaling and, in turn, promoting neurite outgrowth and synapse formation.

PARP1 is activated by membrane damage and is involved in membrane repair through poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation.

Mono(ADP-ribosyl)ation and poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation are posttranslational modifications evolutionarily conserved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They entail transfer of one or more ADP-ribose moieties from NAD+ to acceptor proteins with the simultaneous release of nicotinamide. The resultant ADP-ribosylated acceptor proteins regulate diverse cellular functions. For instance, ADP-ribosyltransferase 1 (ART1) catalyzes mono(ADP-ribosyl)ation of arginine residues in Trim72, a protein specifically expressed in muscle cells and involved in cell membrane repair, which is enhanced upon its ADP-ribosylation. By contrast, the contribution made by ADP-ribosylation to membrane repair in epithelial cells remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the involvement of ADP-ribosylation in cell membrane repair in HEK293T and HeLa cells. We found that upon induction of membrane damage using streptolysin-O, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) catalyzed poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. In scratch assays, inhibition of PARP1 activity using the nonspecific PARP inhibitor PJ34 or shRNA targeting PARP1 delayed wound healing, suggesting that PARP1-catalyzed poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation plays a key role in membrane repair in epithelial cells.

Regulation of Immune Functions by Non-Neuronal Acetylcholine (ACh) via Muscarinic and Nicotinic ACh Receptors.

Acetylcholine (ACh) is the classical neurotransmitter in the cholinergic nervous system. However, ACh is now known to regulate various immune cell functions. In fact, T cells, B cells, and macrophages all express components of the cholinergic system, including ACh, muscarinic, and nicotinic ACh receptors (mAChRs and nAChRs), choline acetyltransferase, acetylcholinesterase, and choline transporters. In this review, we will discuss the actions of ACh in the immune system. We will first briefly describe the mechanisms by which ACh is stored in and released from immune cells. We will then address Ca2+ signaling pathways activated via mAChRs and nAChRs on T cells and B cells, highlighting the importance of ACh for the function of T cells, B cells, and macrophages, as well as its impact on innate and acquired (cellular and humoral) immunity. Lastly, we will discuss the effects of two peptide ligands, secreted lymphocyte antigen-6/urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor-related peptide-1 (SLURP-1) and hippocampal cholinergic neurostimulating peptide (HCNP), on cholinergic activity in T cells. Overall, we stress the fact that ACh does not function only as a neurotransmitter; it impacts immunity by exerting diverse effects on immune cells via mAChRs and nAChRs.

The differential functional coupling of phosphodiesterase 4 to human DP and EP2 prostanoid receptors stimulated with PGD2 or PGE2.

BACKGROUND: Human DP and EP2 receptors are two of the most homologically related receptors coupling with Gαs-protein, which stimulate adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP. Indeed, both receptors are considered to be generated by tandem duplication. It has been reported that other highly homologous and closely related ß1- and ß2-adrenergic receptors interact distinctly with and differentially regulate cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4 recruitment. METHODS: First, we focused on the cAMP degradation pathways of DP and EP2 receptors stimulated by prostaglandin (PG) D2 or PGE2 using HEK cells stably expressing either human DP receptors or EP2 receptors. Then, distances between ligands and amino acids of the receptors were evaluated by molecular dynamics (MD) analysis. RESULTS: We found that PGD2/EP2 receptors exerted a greater effect on PDE4 activity than PGE2/EP2 receptors. Moreover, by MD analysis, either the PGD2 or EP2 receptor was moved and the distance was shortened between them. According to the results, DP receptors retain reactivity for PGE2, but EP2 receptors may be activated only by PGE2, at least in terms of cAMP formation, through the differential functional coupling of PDE4 probably with ß-arrestin. CONCLUSION: Since DP receptors and EP2 receptors are considered to be duplicated genes, DP receptors may still be in a rapid evolutionary stage as a duplicated copy of EP2 receptors and have not yet sufficient selectivity for their cognate ligand, PGD2.

The 89-kDa PARP1 cleavage fragment serves as a cytoplasmic PAR carrier to induce AIF-mediated apoptosis.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) is a nuclear protein that is activated by binding to DNA lesions and catalyzes poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation of nuclear acceptor proteins, including PARP1 itself, to recruit DNA repair machinery to DNA lesions. When excessive DNA damage occurs, poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) produced by PARP1 is translocated to the cytoplasm, changing the activity and localization of cytoplasmic proteins, e.g., apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), hexokinase, and resulting in cell death. This cascade, termed parthanatos, is a caspase-independent programmed cell death distinct from necrosis and apoptosis. In contrast, PARP1 is a substrate of activated caspases 3 and 7 in caspase-dependent apoptosis. Once cleaved, PARP1 loses its activity, thereby suppressing DNA repair. Caspase cleavage of PARP1 occurs within a nuclear localization signal near the DNA-binding domain, resulting in the formation of 24-kDa and 89-kDa fragments. In the present study, we found that caspase activation by staurosporine- and actinomycin D-induced PARP1 autopoly(ADP-ribosyl)ation and fragmentation, generating poly(ADP-ribosyl)ated 89-kDa and 24-kDa PARP1 fragments. The 89-kDa PARP1 fragments with covalently attached PAR polymers were translocated to the cytoplasm, whereas 24-kDa fragments remained associated with DNA lesions. In the cytoplasm, AIF binding to PAR attached to the 89-kDa PARP1 fragment facilitated its translocation to the nucleus. Thus, the 89-kDa PARP1 fragment is a PAR carrier to the cytoplasm, inducing AIF release from mitochondria. Elucidation of the caspase-mediated interaction between apoptosis and parthanatos pathways extend the current knowledge on mechanisms underlying programmed cell death and may lead to new therapeutic targets.

[Dual Roles of α7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors Expressed in Immune Cells in T Cell Differentiation -α7 nAChRs Exert Different Actions between Antigen-presenting Cells and CD4+ T Cells].

Immune cells such as T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells express various cholinergic system components, including muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs and nAChRs, respectively) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), depending on the status of the immune system. The cholinergic system which these components comprise has important effects on the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses. α7 nAChR is a neuronal-type nAChR composed of a homopentamer of the α7 subunit and is characterized by high permeability to Ca2+. It is also expressed in immune cells. For example, α7 nAChRs expressed in B cells suppress IgG production by suppressing B cell maturation into plasma cells. In addition, α7 nAChRs expressed in macrophages suppress production and release of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in a mouse lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced sepsis model, thereby protecting the mice from lethal shock. In this review, we summarize the functions of α7 nAChRs expressed in CD4+ helper T (Th) cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells and macrophages. We focus in particular on their role in Th cell differentiation. α7 nAChRs on APCs interfere with antigen presentation, which leads to suppression of Th cell differentiation. By contrast, α7 nAChRs on naïve Th cells enhance their differentiation. These distinct roles of α7 nAChRs expressed in APCs and Th cells could be useful for development of drugs and therapeutic strategies for the treatment of immune- and inflammation-related diseases and cancers.

Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors Modulate Interleukin-6 Production and Immunoglobulin Class Switching in Daudi Cells.

B cells express muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs and nAChRs, respectively). Following immunization with ovalbumin, serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) and interleukin (IL)-6 levels were lower in M1 and M5 mAChR double-deficient mice and higher in α7 nAChR-deficient mice than in wild-type mice. This suggests mAChRs participate in the cytokine production involved in B cell differentiation into plasma cells, which induces immunoglobulin class switching from IgM to IgG. However, because these results were obtained with conventional knockout mice, in which all cells in the body were affected, the specific roles of these receptors expressed in B cells remains unclear. In the present study, Daudi B lymphoblast cells were used to investigate the specific roles of mAChRs and nAChR in B cells. Stimulating Daudi cells using Pansorbin cells (heat-killed, formalin-fixed Staphylococcus aureus coated with protein A) upregulated expression of M1-M4 mAChRs and the α4 nAChR subunit. Under these conditions, mAChRs, but not nAChRs, mediated immunoglobulin class switching to IgG. This effect was blocked by scopolamine, a non-selective mAChR antagonist, and 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methyl-piperidine methiodide (4-DAMP), a Gq/11-coupled M1, M3, M5 antagonist. In addition, IL-6 secretion was further enhanced following mAChR activation. Thus, Gq/11-coupled mAChRs expressed in B cells thus appear to contribute to IL-6 production and B cell maturation into IgG-producing plasma cells.

Hippocampal Cholinergic Neurostimulating Peptide Suppresses LPS-Induced Expression of Inflammatory Enzymes in Human Macrophages.

Hippocampal cholinergic neurostimulating peptide (HCNP) is a secreted undecapeptide produced through proteolytic cleavage of its precursor protein, HCNPpp. Within hippocampal neurons, HCNP increases gene expression of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), which catalyzes acetylcholine (ACh) synthesis, thereby modulating neural activity. HCNPpp also appears to be expressed in various immune cells. In the present study, we observed that HCNPpp is expressed in U937 human macrophage-like cells and that HCNP exposure suppresses lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced gene expression of ChAT. The opposite action is also seen in T lymphocytes, which suggest that HCNP appear to suppress cholinergic system in immune cells. In addition, HCNP suppresses LPS-induced gene expression of inflammatory enzymes including cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) and inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS). The suppressive effect of HCNP may reflect suppression of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling activated by LPS. Thus, HCNP may have therapeutic potential as an anti-inflammatory drug.

15-Keto-PGE2 acts as a biased/partial agonist to terminate PGE2-evoked signaling.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is well-known as an endogenous proinflammatory prostanoid synthesized from arachidonic acid by the activation of cyclooxygenase-2. E type prostanoid (EP) receptors are cognates for PGE2 that have four main subtypes: EP1 to EP4. Of these, the EP2 and EP4 prostanoid receptors have been shown to couple to Gαs-protein and can activate adenylyl cyclase to form cAMP. Studies suggest that EP4 receptors are involved in colorectal homeostasis and cancer development, but further work is needed to identify the roles of EP2 receptors in these functions. After sufficient inflammation has been evoked by PGE2, it is metabolized to 15-keto-PGE2 Thus, 15-keto-PGE2 has long been considered an inactive metabolite of PGE2 However, it may have an additional role as a biased and/or partial agonist capable of taking over the actions of PGE2 to gradually terminate reactions. Here, using cell-based experiments and in silico simulations, we show that PGE2-activated EP4 receptor-mediated signaling may evoke the primary initiating reaction of the cells, which would take over the 15-keto-PGE2-activated EP2 receptor-mediated signaling after PGE2 is metabolized to 15-keto-PGE2 The present results shed light on new aspects of 15-keto-PGE2, which may have important roles in passing on activities to EP2 receptors from PGE2-stimulated EP4 receptors as a "switched agonist." This novel mechanism may be significant for gradually terminating PGE2-evoked inflammation and/or maintaining homeostasis of colorectal tissues/cells functions.

Down-regulation of ceramide kinase via proteasome and lysosome pathways in PC12 cells by serum withdrawal: Its protection by nerve growth factor and role in exocytosis.

Ceramide kinase (CerK) phosphorylates ceramide to ceramide-1-phosphate (C1P). CerK is highly expressed in the brain, and its association with the neuronal function has been reported. Previous reports showed that the activity of CerK is regulated by post-translational modifications including phosphorylation, whereas the cellular fate of CerK protein and its role in neuronal functions have not been clearly elucidated. Therefore, we investigated these issues in PC12 cells. Treatment with nerve growth factor (NGF) for 6 h increased the formation of C1P but not CerK mRNA. Knockdown of CerK and overexpression of HA-tagged CerK down- and up-regulated the formation of C1P, respectively. In PC12-CerK-HA cells, serum withdrawal caused ubiquitination of CerK-HA protein and down-regulated both CerK-HA protein and C1P formation within 6 h, and these down-regulations were abolished by co-treatments with NGF or proteasome inhibitors such as MG132 and clasto-lactacystin. Microscopic analysis showed that treatment with the proteasome inhibitors increased CerK-HA in puncture structures, possibly endosomes and/or vesicles, in cells. Treatment with the lysosome inhibitors reduced serum withdrawal-induced down-regulation of CerK-HA protein but not C1P formation. When knockdown or overexpression of CerK was performed, Ca2+-induced release of [3H] noradrenaline was reduced or enhanced, respectively, but neurite extension was not modified. There was a positive correlation between noradrenaline release and formation of C1P and/or CerK-HA levels in NGF- and clasto-lactacystin-treated cells. These results suggest that levels of CerK were down-regulated by the ubiquitin/proteasome and lysosome pathways and the former pathway-sensitive pool of CerK was suggested to be linked with exocytosis in PC12 cells.

Minireview: Divergent roles of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed on antigen-presenting cells and CD4+ T cells in the regulation of T cell differentiation.

α7 nAChRs expressed on immune cells regulate antigen-specific antibody and proinflammatory cytokine production. Using spleen cells from ovalbumin (OVA)-specific T cell receptor transgenic DO11.10 mice and the α7 nAChR agonist GTS-21, investigation of (1) antigen processing-dependent and (2) -independent, antigen presenting cell (APC)-dependent, naïve CD4+ T cell differentiation, as well as (3) non-specific APC-independent, anti-CD3/CD28 mAbs-induced CD4+ T cell differentiation, revealed the differential roles of α7 nAChRs expressed on T cells and APCs in the regulation of CD4+ T cell differentiation. GTS-21 suppressed OVA-induced antigen processing- and APC-dependent differentiation into regulatory T cells (Tregs) and effector T cells (Th1, Th2 and Th17) without affecting OVA uptake or cell viability. By contrast, GTS-21 upregulated OVA peptide-induced antigen processing-independent T cell differentiation into all lineages. During anti-CD3/CD28 mAbs-induced T cell differentiation in the presence of polarizing cytokines, GTS-21 promoted wild-type T cell differentiation into all lineages, but did not affect α7 nAChR-deficient T cell differentiation. These results demonstrate (1) that α7 nAChRs on APCs downregulate T cell differentiation by inhibiting antigen processing and thereby interfering with antigen presentation; and (2) that α7 nAChRs on T cells upregulate differentiation into Tregs and effector T cells. Thus, the divergent roles of α7 nAChRs on APCs and T cells likely regulate the intensity of immune responses. These findings suggest the possibility of using α7 nAChR agonists to harvest greater numbers of Tregs and Th1 and Th2 cells for adoptive immune therapies for treatment of autoimmune diseases and cancers.

α7 nAChRs expressed on antigen presenting cells are insensitive to the conventional antagonists α-bungarotoxin and methyllycaconitine.

Expression of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on antigen presenting cells (APCs), such as macrophages and dendritic cells, is now well established. We have shown that GTS-21, a selective α7 nAChR agonist, downregulates APC-dependent CD4+ T cell differentiation into regulatory T cells (Tregs) and effector Th1, Th2 and Th17 cells by inhibiting antigen processing, thereby interfering with antigen presentation. α7 nAChRs on Jurkat human leukemic T cells require functional T cell receptors (TCRs)/CD3 and leukocyte-specific tyrosine kinase to mediate nicotine-induced Ca2+-signaling via Ca2+ release from intracellular stores, and are insensitive to two conventional α7 nAChR antagonists, α-bungarotoxin (α-BTX) and methyllycaconitine (MLA). We investigated the effects of GTS-21, α-BTX and MLA on ovalbumin (OVA)-induced Th cytokine release from spleen cells isolated from OVA-specific TCR transgenic DO11.10 mice. We found that: (1) GTS-21 dose-dependently suppresses OVA-induced IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-17 release, but neither α-BTX nor MLA alone affected the OVA-induced cytokine release. (2) Neither α-BTX nor MLA abolished the suppressive effects of GTS-21 on IFN-γ and IL-17 release from OVA-activated DO11.10 spleen cells. (3) GTS-21 significantly suppressed OVA-induced APC-dependent CD4+ T cell differentiation into Tregs. Neither MLA nor mecamylamine, a non-specific nAChR antagonist, abolished the suppressive effect of GTS-21 on Treg differentiation. These results suggest that α7 nAChRs on APCs involved in cytokine synthesis and T cell differentiation are insensitive to the conventional α7 nAChR antagonists, α-BTX and MLA, and that α7 nAChRs on APCs differ pharmacologically from those in neurons.