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In Cameroon, Aedes mosquitoes transmit various arboviruses, posing significant health risks. We aimed to characterize the Aedes virome in southwestern Cameroon and identify potential core viruses which might be associated with vector competence. A total of 398 Aedes mosquitoes were collected from four locations (Bafoussam, Buea, Edea, and Yaounde). Aedes albopictus dominated all sites except for Bafoussam, where Aedes africanus prevailed. Metagenomic analyses of the mosquitoes grouped per species into 54 pools revealed notable differences in the eukaryotic viromes between Ae. africanus and Ae. albopictus, with the former exhibiting greater richness and diversity. Thirty-seven eukaryotic virus species from 16 families were identified, including six novel viruses with near complete genome sequences. Seven viruses were further quantified in individual mosquitoes via qRT-PCR. Although none of them could be identified as core viruses, Guangzhou sobemo-like virus and Bafoussam mosquito solemovirus, were highly prevalent regionally in Ae. albopictus and Ae. africanus, respectively. This study highlights the diverse eukaryotic virome of Aedes species in southwestern Cameroon. Despite their shared genus, Aedes species exhibit limited viral sharing, with varying viral abundance and prevalence across locations. Ae. africanus, an understudied vector, harbors a rich and diverse virome, suggesting potential implications for arbovirus vector competence.
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Aedes , Mosquitos Vetores , Viroma , Animais , Aedes/virologia , Camarões , Viroma/genética , Mosquitos Vetores/virologia , Metagenômica , Filogenia , Genoma Viral , Arbovírus/genética , Arbovírus/classificação , Arbovírus/isolamento & purificaçãoRESUMO
In recent years, managed honey bee colonies have been suffering from an increasing number of biotic and abiotic stressors, resulting in numerous losses of colonies worldwide. A pan-European study, EPILOBEE, estimated the colony loss in Belgium to be 32.4% in 2012 and 14.8% in 2013. In the current study, absolute viral loads of four known honey bee viruses (DWV-A, DWV-B, AmFV, and BMLV) and three novel putative honey bee viruses (Apis orthomyxovirus 1, apthili virus, and apparli virus) were determined in 300 Flemish honey bee samples, and associations with winter survival were determined. This revealed that, in addition to the known influence of DWV-A and DWV-B on colony health, one of the newly described viruses (apthili virus) shows a strong yearly difference and is also associated with winter survival. Furthermore, all scrutinized viruses revealed significant spatial clustering patterns, implying that despite the limited surface area of Flanders, local virus transmission is paramount. The vast majority of samples were positive for at least one of the seven investigated viruses, and up to 20% of samples were positive for at least one of the three novel viruses. One of those three, Apis orthomyxovirus 1, was shown to be a genuine honey bee-infecting virus, able to infect all developmental stages of the honey bee, as well as the Varroa destructor mite. These results shed light on the most prevalent viruses in Belgium and their roles in the winter survival of honey bee colonies. IMPORTANCE: The western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is a highly effective pollinator of flowering plants, including many crops, which gives honey bees an outstanding importance both ecologically and economically. Alarmingly high annual loss rates of managed honey bee colonies are a growing concern for beekeepers and scientists and have prompted a significant research effort toward bee health. Several detrimental factors have been identified, such as varroa mite infestation and disease from various bacterial and viral agents, but annual differences are often not elucidated. In this study, we utilize the viral metagenomic survey of the EPILOBEE project, a European research program for bee health, to elaborate on the most abundant bee viruses of Flanders. We complement the existing metagenomic data with absolute viral loads and their spatial and temporal distributions. Furthermore, we identify Apis orthomyxovirus 1 as a potentially emerging pathogen, as we find evidence for its active replication honey bees.
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Vírus de Insetos , Estações do Ano , Animais , Abelhas/virologia , Abelhas/parasitologia , Bélgica , Vírus de Insetos/genética , Vírus de Insetos/isolamento & purificação , Vírus de Insetos/fisiologia , Carga Viral , Filogenia , Vírus de RNA/genética , Vírus de RNA/isolamento & purificação , Vírus de RNA/classificação , Vírus/genética , Vírus/isolamento & purificação , Vírus/classificaçãoRESUMO
Introduction: Tomato cultivation across the world is severely affected by emerging plant viruses. An effective method for protection of commercial crops against viral threats is the use of cultivars harboring resistance genes. Tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV), a recently emerged tobamovirus, is able to overcome the dominant Tm-22 resistance that is present in the majority of commercial tomato cultivars. In an effort to alleviate the severe consequences of ToBRFV on tomato production, tomato breeding companies are developing new cultivars with varying levels of resistance against ToBRFV. Methods: In the present study, cultivars with a new resistant phenotype against ToBRFV were screened against a wild-type isolate of ToBRFV, and subsequently, their performance under commercial greenhouse conditions was monitored. Following the identification of ToBRFV symptoms in a commercial greenhouse-where both new resistant and susceptible cultivars were interplanted-these cultivars were more closely examined. Results: The presence of ToBRFV was molecularly confirmed on both cultivar types suggesting that the new resistance had been broken. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) was used to study the complete genomes of viral isolates present in the two cultivar types. The analysis revealed a single amino acid change at position 82 of the movement protein of ToBRFV in the isolate present in the new resistant cultivar compared with the isolate identified in the susceptible cultivar. Discussion: A screening bioassay, that was performed to compare the infectivity of the two ToBRFV isolates, confirmed that only the isolate with this specific amino acid change could successfully infect the resistant cultivar, overcoming the new resistance against ToBRFV.
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In arthropod-associated microbial communities, insect-specific viruses (ISVs) are prevalent yet understudied due to limited infectivity outside their natural hosts. However, ISVs might play a crucial role in regulating mosquito populations and influencing arthropod-borne virus transmission. Some studies have indicated a core virome in mosquitoes consisting of mostly ISVs. Employing single mosquito metagenomics, we comprehensively profiled the virome of native and invasive mosquito species in Belgium. This approach allowed for accurate host species determination, prevalence assessment of viruses and Wolbachia, and the identification of novel viruses. Contrary to our expectations, no abundant core virome was observed in Culex mosquitoes from Belgium. In that regard, we caution against rigidly defining mosquito core viromes and encourage nuanced interpretations of other studies. Nonetheless, our study identified 45 viruses of which 28 were novel, enriching our understanding of the mosquito virome and ISVs. We showed that the mosquito virome in this study is species-specific and less dependent on the location where mosquitoes from the same species reside. In addition, because Wolbachia has previously been observed to influence arbovirus transmission, we report the prevalence of Wolbachia in Belgian mosquitoes and the detection of several Wolbachia mobile genetic elements. The observed prevalence ranged from 83% to 92% in members from the Culex pipiens complex.IMPORTANCECulex pipiens mosquitoes are important vectors for arboviruses like West Nile virus and Usutu virus. Virome studies on individual Culex pipiens, and on individual mosquitoes in general, have been lacking. To mitigate this, we sequenced the virome of 190 individual Culex and 8 individual Aedes japonicus mosquitoes. We report the lack of a core virome in these mosquitoes from Belgium and caution the interpretation of other studies in this light. The discovery of new viruses in this study will aid our comprehension of insect-specific viruses and the mosquito virome in general in relation to mosquito physiology and mosquito population dynamics.
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Culex , Viroma , Wolbachia , Animais , Culex/virologia , Culex/microbiologia , Viroma/genética , Wolbachia/genética , Wolbachia/isolamento & purificação , Bélgica , Especificidade da Espécie , Mosquitos Vetores/virologia , Mosquitos Vetores/microbiologia , Metagenômica , Vírus de Insetos/genética , Vírus de Insetos/isolamento & purificação , ClimaRESUMO
Rotaviruses belong to genotype VP4-P[8] are a significant cause of severe loose diarrhea in infants and young children. In the present study, we characterised the complete genome of three of the Pakistani P[8]b RVA strains by Illumina HiSeq sequencing technology to determine the complete genotype constellation providing insight into the evolutionary dynamics of their genes using maximum likelihood analysis. The maximum genomic sequences of our study strains were similar to more recent human Wa-Like G1P[8]a, G3P[8]a, G4P[6], G4P[8], G9P[4], G9P[8]a, G11P[25],G12P[8]a and G12P[6] strains circulating around the world. Therefore, strains PAK274, PAK439 and PAK624 carry natively distinctive VP4 gene with universally common human Wa-Like genetic backbone. Comparing our study P[8]b strains with vaccines strains RotarixTM and RotaTeqTM, multiple amino acid differences were examined between vaccine virus antigenic epitopes and Pakistani isolates. Over time, these differences may result in the selection for strains that will escape the vaccine-induced RVA-neutralizing-antibody effect.
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Antígenos Virais , Proteínas do Capsídeo , Epitopos , Genoma Viral , Genótipo , Infecções por Rotavirus , Vacinas contra Rotavirus , Rotavirus , Rotavirus/genética , Rotavirus/classificação , Rotavirus/imunologia , Rotavirus/isolamento & purificação , Humanos , Infecções por Rotavirus/virologia , Paquistão , Vacinas contra Rotavirus/imunologia , Epitopos/genética , Epitopos/imunologia , Proteínas do Capsídeo/genética , Proteínas do Capsídeo/imunologia , Genoma Viral/genética , Antígenos Virais/genética , Antígenos Virais/imunologia , Lactente , Filogenia , Vacinas Atenuadas/imunologia , Vacinas Atenuadas/genética , Pré-EscolarRESUMO
Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) is a heterogeneous disease characterized by autoantibodies against insulin producing pancreatic beta cells and initial lack of need for insulin treatment. The aim of the present study was to investigate if individuals with LADA have an altered gut microbiota relative to non-diabetic control subjects, individuals with type 1 diabetes (T1D), and individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Bacterial community profiling was performed with primers targeting the variable region 4 of the 16S rRNA gene and sequenced. Amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) were generated with DADA2 and annotated to the SILVA database. The gut virome was sequenced, using a viral particle enrichment and metagenomics approach, assembled, and quantified to describe the composition of the viral community. Comparison of the bacterial alpha- and beta-diversity measures revealed that the gut bacteriome of individuals with LADA resembled that of individuals with T2D. Yet, specific genera were found to differ in abundance in individuals with LADA compared with T1D and T2D, indicating that LADA has unique taxonomical features. The virome composition reflected the stability of the most dominant order Caudovirales and the families Siphoviridae, Podoviridae, and Inoviridae, and the dominant family Microviridae. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings.
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Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 1 , Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 2 , Microbioma Gastrointestinal , Intolerância à Glucose , Diabetes Autoimune Latente em Adultos , Adulto , Humanos , Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 1/genética , Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 2/genética , Diabetes Autoimune Latente em Adultos/genética , Microbioma Gastrointestinal/genética , Adenosina Desaminase , RNA Ribossômico 16S/genética , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intercelular , InsulinaRESUMO
Using a metagenomic sequencing approach on stool samples from children with Acute Flaccid Paralysis (AFP), we describe the genetic diversity of Sapoviruses (SaVs) in children in Nigeria. We identified six complete genome sequences and two partial genome sequences. Several SaV genogroups and genotypes were detected, including GII (GII.4 and GII.8), GIV (GIV.1), and GI (GI.2 and GI.7). To our knowledge, this is the first description of SaV infections and complete genomes from Nigeria. Pairwise identity and phylogenetic analysis showed that the Nigerian SaVs were related to previously documented gastroenteritis outbreaks with associated strains from China and Japan. Minor variations in the functional motifs of the nonstructural proteins NS3 and NS5 were seen in the Nigerian strains. To adequately understand the effect of such amino acid changes, a better understanding of the biological function of these proteins is vital. The identification of distinct SaVs reinforces the need for robust surveillance in acute gastroenteritis (AGE) and non-AGE cohorts to better understand SaVs genotype diversity, evolution, and its role in disease burden in Nigeria. Future studies in different populations are, therefore, recommended.
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The rising prevalence of liver diseases related to obesity and excessive use of alcohol is fuelling an increasing demand for accurate biomarkers aimed at community screening, diagnosis of steatohepatitis and significant fibrosis, monitoring, prognostication and prediction of treatment efficacy. Breakthroughs in omics methodologies and the power of bioinformatics have created an excellent opportunity to apply technological advances to clinical needs, for instance in the development of precision biomarkers for personalised medicine. Via omics technologies, biological processes from the genes to circulating protein, as well as the microbiome - including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can be investigated on an axis. However, there are important barriers to omics-based biomarker discovery and validation, including the use of semi-quantitative measurements from untargeted platforms, which may exhibit high analytical, inter- and intra-individual variance. Standardising methods and the need to validate them across diverse populations presents a challenge, partly due to disease complexity and the dynamic nature of biomarker expression at different disease stages. Lack of validity causes lost opportunities when studies fail to provide the knowledge needed for regulatory approvals, all of which contributes to a delayed translation of these discoveries into clinical practice. While no omics-based biomarkers have matured to clinical implementation, the extent of data generated has enabled the hypothesis-free discovery of a plethora of candidate biomarkers that warrant further validation. To explore the many opportunities of omics technologies, hepatologists need detailed knowledge of commonalities and differences between the various omics layers, and both the barriers to and advantages of these approaches.
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Biomarcadores , Humanos , Biomarcadores/análise , Biomarcadores/metabolismo , Fígado Gorduroso/diagnóstico , Fígado Gorduroso/genética , Proteômica/métodos , Metabolômica/métodos , Genômica/métodosRESUMO
Human norovirus (HuNoV) and human rotavirus (HRV) are the leading causes of gastrointestinal diarrhea. There are no approved antivirals and rotavirus vaccines are insufficient to cease HRV associated mortality. Furthermore, treatment of chronically infected immunocompromised patients is limited to off-label compassionate use of repurposed antivirals with limited efficacy, highlighting the urgent need of potent and specific antivirals for HuNoV and HRV. Recently, a major breakthrough in the in vitro cultivation of HuNoV and HRV derived from the use of human intestinal enteroids (HIEs). The replication of multiple circulating HuNoV and HRV genotypes can finally be studied and both in the same non-transformed and physiologically relevant model. Activity of previously described anti-norovirus or anti-rotavirus drugs, such as 2'-C-methylcytidine (2CMC), 7-deaza-2'-C-methyladenosine (7DMA), nitazoxanide, favipiravir and dasabuvir, was assessed against clinically relevant human genotypes using 3D-HIEs. 2CMC showed the best activity against HuNoV GII.4, while 7DMA was the most potent antiviral against HRV. We identified the anti-norovirus and -rotavirus activity of molnupiravir and its active metabolite, N4-hydroxycytidine (NHC), a broad-spectrum antiviral used to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Molnupiravir and NHC inhibit HuNoV GII.4, HRV G1P[8], G2P[4] and G4P[6] in 3D-HIEs with high selectivity and show a potency comparable to 2CMC against HuNoV. Moreover, molnupiravir and NHC block HRV viroplasm formation, but do not alter its size or subcellular localization. Taken together, molnupiravir inhibits both HuNoV and HRV replication, suggesting that the drug could be a candidate for the treatment of patients chronically infected with either one of these diarrhea causing viruses.
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Citidina/análogos & derivados , Hidroxilaminas , Norovirus , Rotavirus , Humanos , Diarreia/tratamento farmacológico , Antivirais/farmacologiaRESUMO
The second symposium of the Belgian Society for Viruses of Microbes (BSVoM) took place on 8 September 2023 at the University of Liège with 141 participants from 10 countries. The meeting program covered three thematic sessions opened by international keynote speakers: two sessions were devoted to "Fundamental research in phage ecology and biology" and the third one to the "Present and future applications of phages". During this one day symposium, four invited keynote lectures, nine selected talks and eight student pitches were given along with thirty presented posters. The president of the Belgian Society for Viruses of Microbes, Prof. Yves Briers, took advantage of this symposium to launch the Phage Valley concept that will put the spotlight on the exceptionally high density of researchers investigating viruses of microbes as well as the successful triple helix approach between academia, industry and government in Belgium.
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Bacteriófagos , Humanos , Bélgica , Meio Ambiente , Ecologia , EstudantesRESUMO
Rotavirus A (RVA) causes diarrhea in calves and frequently possesses the G6 and P[5]/P[11] genotypes, whereas G8 is less common. We aimed to compare RVA infections and G/P genotypes in beef and dairy calves from major livestock regions of Argentina, elucidate the evolutionary origin of a G8 strain and analyze the G8 lineages, infer the phylogenetic relationship of RVA field strains, and investigate the evolution and spatio-temporal dynamics of the main G6 lineages in American countries. Fecal samples (n = 422) from diarrheic (beef, 104; dairy, 137) and non-diarrheic (beef, 78; dairy, 103) calves were analyzed by ELISA and semi-nested multiplex RT-PCR. Sequencing, phylogenetic, phylodynamic, and phylogeographic analyses were performed. RVA infections were more frequent in beef (22.0%) than in dairy (14.2%) calves. Prevalent genotypes and G6 lineages were G6(IV)P[5] in beef (90.9%) and G6(III)P[11] (41.2%) or mixed genotypes (23.5%) in dairy calves. The only G8 strain was phylogenetically related to bovine and artiodactyl bovine-like strains. Re-analyses inside the G8 genotype identified G8(I) to G8(VIII) lineages. Of all G6 strains characterized, the G6(IV)P[5](I) strains from "Cuenca del Salado" (Argentina) and Uruguay clustered together. According to farm location, a clustering pattern for G6(IV)P[5] strains of beef farms was observed. Both G6 lineage strains together revealed an evolutionary rate of 1.24 × 10-3 substitutions/site/year, and the time to the most recent common ancestor was dated in 1853. The most probable ancestral locations were Argentina in 1981 for G6(III) strains and the USA in 1940 for G6(IV) strains. The highest migration rates for both G6 lineages together were from Argentina to Brazil and Uruguay. Altogether, the epidemiology, genetic diversity, and phylogeny of RVA in calves can differ according to the production system and farm location. We provide novel knowledge about the evolutionary origin of a bovine G8P[11] strain. Finally, bovine G6 strains from American countries would have originated in the USA nearly a century before its first description.
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Doenças dos Bovinos , Infecções por Rotavirus , Rotavirus , Animais , Bovinos , Rotavirus/genética , Epidemiologia Molecular , Filogenia , Infecções por Rotavirus/epidemiologia , Infecções por Rotavirus/veterinária , Diarreia/epidemiologia , Diarreia/veterinária , Genótipo , Fezes , Doenças dos Bovinos/epidemiologiaRESUMO
BACKGROUND: West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) are emerging arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) in Europe transmitted by Culex mosquitoes. In Belgium, it is currently unknown which Culex species are competent vectors for WNV or USUV and if these mosquitoes carry Wolbachia, an endosymbiotic bacterium that can block arbovirus transmission. The aims of our study were to measure the vector competence of Belgian Culex mosquitoes to WNV and USUV and determine if a naturally acquired Wolbachia infection can influence virus transmission. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Female Culex mosquitoes were captured from urban and peri-urban sites in Leuven, Belgium and offered an infectious bloodmeal containing WNV lineage 2, USUV European (EU) lineage 3, or USUV African (AF) lineage 3. Blood-fed females were incubated for 14 days at 25°C after which the body, head, and saliva were collected to measure infection, dissemination, and transmission rates as well as transmission efficiency. Mosquito species were identified by qRT-PCR or Sanger sequencing, the presence of infectious virus in mosquitoes was confirmed by plaque assays, and viral genome copies were quantified by qRT-PCR. Culex pipiens pipiens were able to transmit WNV (4.3% transmission efficiency, n = 2/47) but not USUV (EU lineage: n = 0/56; AF lineage: n = 0/37). In contrast, Culex modestus were able to transmit USUV (AF lineage: 20% transmission efficiency, n = 1/5) but not WNV (n = 0/6). We found that the presence or absence of Wolbachia was species-dependent and did not associate with virus transmission. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first report that Belgian Culex mosquitoes can transmit both WNV and USUV, forewarning the risk of human transmission. More research is needed to understand the potential influence of Wolbachia on arbovirus transmission in Culex modestus mosquitoes.
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Arbovírus , Culex , Culicidae , Flavivirus , Febre do Nilo Ocidental , Vírus do Nilo Ocidental , Animais , Feminino , Humanos , Vírus do Nilo Ocidental/genética , Bélgica , Flavivirus/genética , Mosquitos VetoresRESUMO
We report the sequences of four complete genomes of parvovirus B19, extracted from human amniotic fluid specimens collected from pregnant women with abnormal ultrasound features in France. The genome sequences are 5,596 nucleotides long and include long terminal repeats. Several amino acid substitutions were observed in nonstructural protein (NS1).
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Marine macroalgae (seaweeds) are important primary producers and foundation species in coastal ecosystems around the world. Seaweeds currently contribute to an estimated 51% of the global mariculture production, with a long-term growth rate of 6% per year, and an estimated market value of more than US$11.3 billion. Viral infections could have a substantial impact on the ecology and aquaculture of seaweeds, but surprisingly little is known about virus diversity in macroalgal hosts. Using metagenomic sequencing, we characterized viral communities associated with healthy and bleached specimens of the commercially important green seaweed Ulva. We identified 20 putative new and divergent viruses, of which the majority belonged to the Circular Rep-Encoding Single-Stranded (CRESS) DNA viruses [single-stranded (ss)DNA genomes], Durnavirales [double-stranded (ds)RNA], and Picornavirales (ssRNA). Other newly identified RNA viruses were related to the Ghabrivirales, the Mitoviridae, and the Tombusviridae. Bleached Ulva samples contained particularly high viral read numbers. While reads matching assembled CRESS DNA viruses and picorna-like viruses were nearly absent from the healthy Ulva samples (confirmed by qPCR), they were very abundant in the bleached specimens. Therefore, bleaching in Ulva could be caused by one or a combination of the identified viruses but may also be the result of another causative agent or abiotic stress, with the viruses simply proliferating in already unhealthy seaweed tissue. This study highlights how little we know about the diversity and ecology of seaweed viruses, especially in relation to the health and diseases of the algal host, and emphasizes the need to better characterize the algal virosphere. IMPORTANCE Green seaweeds of the genus Ulva are considered a model system to study microbial interactions with the algal host. Remarkably little is known, however, about viral communities associated with green seaweeds, especially in relation to the health of the host. In this study, we characterized the viral communities associated with healthy and bleached Ulva. Our findings revealed the presence of 20 putative novel viruses associated with Ulva, encompassing both DNA and RNA viruses. The majority of these viruses were found to be especially abundant in bleached Ulva specimens. This is the first step toward understanding the role of viruses in the ecology and aquaculture of this green seaweed.
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Doenças Transmissíveis , Doenças do Recém-Nascido , Gravidez , Feminino , Humanos , Recém-Nascido , Gestantes , Líquido Amniótico , MetagenômicaRESUMO
Blood transfusion safety is an essential element of public health. Current blood screening strategies rely on targeted techniques that could miss unknown or unexpected pathogens. Recent studies have demonstrated the presence of a viral community (virobiota/virome) in the blood of healthy individuals. Here, we characterized the blood virome in patients frequently exposed to blood transfusion by using Illumina metagenomic sequencing. The virome of these patients was compared to viruses present in healthy blood donors. A total number of 155 beta-thalassemia, 149 hemodialysis, and 100 healthy blood donors were pooled with five samples per pool. Members of the Anelloviridae and Flaviviridae family were most frequently observed. Interestingly, samples of healthy blood donors harbored traces of potentially pathogenic viruses, including adeno-, rota-, and Merkel cell polyomavirus. Viruses of the Anelloviridae family were most abundant in the blood of hemodialysis patients and displayed a higher anellovirus richness. Pegiviruses (Flaviviridae) were only observed in patient populations. An overall trend of higher eukaryotic read abundance in both patient groups was observed. This might be associated with increased exposure through blood transfusion. Overall, the findings in this study demonstrated the presence of various viruses in the blood of Iranian multiple-transfused patients and healthy blood donors.
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Anelloviridae , Vírus , Humanos , Irã (Geográfico)/epidemiologia , Viroma , Vírus/genética , Anelloviridae/genética , Metagenoma , Metagenômica/métodosRESUMO
Phage therapy is an emerging antimicrobial treatment for critical multidrug-resistant pathogens. In this review, the specific potential and challenges of phage therapy for patients with hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) are discussed. This represents a unique challenge as HS is a chronic inflammatory disease, but presenting with acute exacerbations, which have an enormous negative impact on patient's quality of life. The therapeutic arsenal for HS has expanded in the past decade, for example, with adalimumab and several other biologicals that are currently under investigation. However, treatment of HS remains challenging for dermatologists because there are individuals who do not respond to any classes of the current treatment options when used for a first or second time. Furthermore, after several courses of treatment, a patient may lose their response to therapy, meaning long-term use is not always an option. Culturing studies and 16S ribosomal RNA profiling highlight the complex polymicrobial nature of HS lesions. Despite the detection of various bacterial species in lesion samples, several key pathogens, including Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium and Streptococcus, may be potential targets for phage therapy. Using phage therapy for the treatment of a chronic inflammatory disease could potentially provide new insights into the role of bacteria and the immune system in HS development. In addition, it is possible more details on the immunomodulatory effects of phages may come to light.