Pediatric and Adolescent Distal Radius Fractures: Current Concepts and Treatment Recommendations.

Distal radius fractures are the most common skeletal injuries requiring intervention in children. These injuries are classified by fracture pattern, location, displacement, and angulation. While each unique fracture pattern warrants slightly modified treatment plans and follow-up, the goals of treatment remain constant. Successful outcomes depend on restoration of motion and function, and attaining acceptable sagittal and coronal alignment is a necessary first step. For displaced fractures, closed reduction is often necessary to restore alignment; well-molded cast application is important to maintain fracture alignment. Fractures with bayonet apposition, if well aligned, may not need formal reduction in some patients. Special attention should be paid to the physis-not only for physeal-involving fractures but also for all distal radius fractures-given that the proximity to the physis and amount of remaining skeletal growth help guide treatment decisions. Casting technique is essential in optimizing the best chance in maintaining fracture reduction. Surgical intervention may be indicated for a subset of fractures when acceptable alignment is not achieved or is lost at subsequent follow-up. Even among experts in the field, there is little consensus as to the optimal treatment of displaced metaphyseal fractures, illustrating the need for prospective, randomized studies to establish best practices.

MRI of the Spine in Patients who Toe Walk: Is There a Role?

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the prevalence of intraspinal pathology in children who toe walk, but magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be part of the diagnostic workup. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of MRI for children who toe walk with a focus on the rate of positive findings and associated neurosurgical interventions performed for children with said MRI findings. METHODS: A single-center tertiary hospital database was queried to identify a cohort of 118 subjects with a diagnosis of toe walking who underwent spinal MRI during a 5-year period. Patient and MRI characteristics were summarized and compared between subjects with a major abnormality, minor abnormality, or no abnormality on MRI using multivariable logistic regression. Major MRI abnormalities included those with a clear spinal etiology, such as fatty filum, tethered cord, syrinx, and Chiari malformation, while minor abnormalities had unclear associations with toe walking. RESULTS: The most common primary indications for MRI were failure to improve with conservative treatment, severe contracture, and abnormal reflexes. The prevalence of major MRI abnormalities was 25% (30/118), minor MRI abnormalities was 19% (22/118), and normal MRI was 56% (66/118). Patients with delayed onset of toe walking were significantly more likely to have a major abnormality on MRI ( P =0.009). The presence of abnormal reflexes, severe contracture, back pain, bladder incontinence, and failure to improve with conservative treatment were not significantly associated with an increased likelihood of major abnormality on MRI. Twenty-nine (25%) subjects underwent tendon lengthening, and 5 (4%) underwent neurosurgical intervention, the most frequent of which was detethering and sectioning of fatty filum. CONCLUSIONS: Spinal MRI in patients who toe walk has a high rate of major positive findings, some of which require neurosurgical intervention. The most significant predictor of intraspinal pathology was the late onset of toe walking after the child had initiated walking. MRI of the spine should be considered by pediatric orthopedic surgeons in patients with toe walking who present late with an abnormal clinical course. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III Retrospective Comparative Study.

The Healthcare Experience of Autistic Patients in Orthopaedic Surgery and Closely Related Fields: A Scoping Review.

Orthopaedic and related care has the potential to present unique obstacles for patients with a range of autism manifestations. In this review, we aim to describe and analyze the literature on autistic patients' experience within orthopaedics and closely related fields. This literature search utilized the PubMed, Embase, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature databases. Three major concepts were built into the search terms: (1) patients on the autism spectrum; (2) patient experience; and (3) movement sciences, including orthopaedics, physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R), occupational therapy (OT), and physical therapy (PT). Our search yielded 35 topical publications, with the major topic areas addressed as follows: (1) clinical and perioperative management, (2) therapy interventions, (3) participation in exercise and social play, (4) sensory management and accommodations, (5) caregiver/parent training and involvement in care, (6) healthcare needs and barriers to care, and (7) utilization of technology. In the current literature, there are no studies that attempt to directly assess autistic patient experience with care practices and clinical environments in orthopaedics. Rigorous, direct examination of the experience of autistic patients within clinical orthopaedic settings is urgently needed to address this gap.

Anxiety surrounding supracondylar humerus pin removal in children.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to quantify the anxiety experienced by patients undergoing pin removal in clinic following closed reduction and percutaneous pinning for supracondylar humerus fractures. Methods: We prospectively enrolled 53 patients (3-8 years) treated for supracondylar humerus fracture with closed reduction and percutaneous pinning between July 2018 and February 2020. Demographic and injury data were recorded. Heart rate and the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, and Consolability scale were measured immediately before pin removal and after pin removal, and crossover control values were obtained at the subsequent follow-up clinic visit. Results: All patients experienced anxiety immediately prior to pin removal (95% confidence interval, 94%-100%) with a median Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, and Consolability score of 7 (interquartile range, 6-8). In addition, 98% of subjects experienced an elevated heart rate (95% confidence interval, 88%-100%). Patients experienced a median 73% reduction in Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, and Consolability score and mean 21% reduction in heart rate from prior to pin removal to after pin removal (p < 0.001). All 45 patients who completed their follow-up visit had a control Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, and Consolability score of 0 and a mean control heart rate of 89.7 bpm. Twenty-five of these 45 subjects (56%) had an elevated control heart rate for their age and sex. Mean heart rate prior to pin removal was 36% higher than control heart rate. There were no sex differences detected in Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, and Consolability scores or heart rate. Conclusions: Pediatric patients experience high levels of anxiety when undergoing pin removal following closed reduction and percutaneous pinning for supracondylar humerus fractures. This is an area of clinical practice where intervention may be warranted to decrease patient anxiety. Level of evidence: II.

Outcomes of Nonoperatively Treated Pediatric Supracondylar Humeral Fractures at the Nkhotakota District Hospital, Malawi.

Displaced supracondylar humeral fractures (SCHFs) benefit from closed reduction and percutaneous pinning. In Malawi, many SCHFs are treated nonoperatively because of limited surgical capacity. We sought to assess clinical and functional outcomes of nonoperatively treated SCHFs in a resource-limited setting. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed all patients with SCHFs treated at Nkhotakota District Hospital (NKKDH) in Malawi between January 2014 and December 2016. Patients subsequently underwent clinical and functional follow-up assessment. RESULTS: We identified 182 children (54% male, mean age of 7 years) with an SCHF; 151 (83%) of the fractures were due to a fall, and 178 (98%) were extension-type (Gartland class distribution: 63 [35%] type I, 52 [29%] type II, and 63 [35%] type III). Four patients with type-I fractures were treated with an arm sling alone, and 59 were treated with straight-arm traction to reduce swelling and then splint immobilization until union. All 119 of the patients with Gartland type-II and III or flexion-type injuries were treated with straight-arm traction, manipulation under anesthesia without fluoroscopy, and then splint immobilization until union. A total of 137 (75%) of the patients were available for follow-up, at a mean of 3.9 years after injury. The Flynn functional outcome was excellent for 39 (95%) with a type-I fracture, 30 (70%) with type-II, and 14 (29%) with type-III. The Flynn cosmetic outcome was excellent for 40 (98%) with a type-I fracture, 42 (98%) with type-II, and 41 (84%) with type-III. Forty (98%) of the children with a type-I fracture, 41 (95%) with type-II, and 32 (65%) with type-III returned to school without limitation. Controlling for sex, delayed presentation, medical comorbidities, injury mechanism, and skin blistering/superinfection during traction, patients with type-II fractures were 5.82-times more likely (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.71 to 19.85) and those with type-III fractures were 9.81-times more likely (95% CI, 3.00 to 32.04), to have a clinical complication or functional limitation compared with patients with type-I fractures. CONCLUSIONS: Nonoperative treatment of type-III SCHFs resulted in a high risk of clinical complications or functional impairment. These results illustrate the urgent need to increase surgical capacity in low-income countries like Malawi to improve pediatric fracture care. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Open Reduction and Internal Fixation of Pediatric Medial Epicondylar Humeral Fractures in the Prone Position.

BACKGROUND: Fracture of the medial epicondyle is a common pediatric injury, with an estimated annual incidence of 40 to 60 per 100,000 people per year1-3. Medial epicondylar fractures are associated with elbow dislocation in about 60% of cases, and ulnar nerve dysfunction is reported to occur nearly 10% of the time2,4. No standard of care for medial epicondylar fracture exists, as similar outcomes have been demonstrated in observational studies with both operative and nonoperative treatment5,6. Increasingly, however, these injuries are being treated with surgical intervention, which in most cases consists of a single screw affixing the osseous piece back to its donor site on the humerus7-9. There is broad consensus on the absolute indications for operative treatment, including an open fracture and an incarcerated epicondylar fragment1,10-13. The relative indications are more controversial and include ulnar nerve dysfunction, elbow instability, increased fragment displacement, and high-level throwing or upper-extremity weight-bearing athletes2,9,14-16. DESCRIPTION: The patient is placed in the prone position with the operative arm on a radiolucent arm board. A milking maneuver with an Esmarch bandage is utilized. A posteromedial incision is made over the medial epicondyle. The ulnar nerve is protected posteriorly. The fracture is easily reduced under minimal tension, and then 1 or 2 guidewires from the 4.0-mm cannulated screw kit are placed to fix the fragment. The central guidewire is overreamed, and then a partially threaded 4.0-mm screw is placed in a relative posterior-to-anterior trajectory within the medial column of the elbow. ALTERNATIVES: Nonoperative treatment includes immobilization in a long arm cast until fragment healing. Complications associated with nonoperative treatment include nonunion and late instability. Supine positioning is a reasonable alternative to the prone position described here. In that case, the fracture is fixed with the arm in external rotation of the shoulder and with the elbow extended. RATIONALE: Prone positioning for operative treatment of medial epicondylar fractures is preferred because the tension from the flexor pronator mass associated with supine positioning is negated, facilitating an easier fracture reduction and improved anatomic reduction. EXPECTED OUTCOMES: To our knowledge, there are currently no Level-I or Level-II prospective studies reporting on the outcomes of operative versus nonoperative treatment of medial epicondylar fractures. A systematic review of retrospective results suggested no difference in pain or clinical outcomes, but >9-times greater odds of union with operative treatment5,6. Expectations following operative treatment of a medial epicondylar fracture have been explored in multiple studies. Generally, return to full levels of activity and near-normal range of motion of the elbow have been demonstrated by most. Minor rates of range-of-motion limitation, including extension deficit (4% with deficit up to 20°) are reported in some studies8. In the setting of preoperative instability, the expectation is that elbow stability will be achieved by operative treatment7,8. IMPORTANT TIPS: Perform and document an accurate preoperative neurovascular examination of the arm.Test the shoulder in internal rotation prior to prone positioning.Protect the ulnar nerve during surgical fixation and drilling.Confirm that the screw trajectory is relatively posterior to anterior and only in the medial column of the elbow.

Pediatric Venous Thromboembolism: Different Rates of Incidence, Anatomic Locations, and Risk Factors Between Orthopaedic and Nonorthopaedic Related Patients.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of venous thromboembolism (VTE) may be increasing in children; however, scarce literature exists comparing incidence rates between pediatric orthopaedic patients and other pediatric patients. The purpose of this study was to compare the incidence, anatomic locations, and risk factors of VTEs between orthopaedic and nonorthopaedic pediatric related patients to determine if important differences exist. METHODS: Computed tomography and ultrasound data were reviewed for children (below 19 y old) with a diagnosed VTE between January 1, 2009 and December 31, 2016. Demographic and clinical data, including VTE anatomic location and risk factors, were recorded. Two major cohorts were identified: orthopaedic-related (ORTH) and nonorthopaedic-related (NORTH) VTEs. Incidence rates were estimated and risk factors were compared using χ2 testing. RESULTS: There were 373 children diagnosed with a VTE (average age 10.3 y) of a total of 810,097 treated as in-patients for an incidence rate of 4.60 per 10,000 cases (95% confidence interval=4.15 to 5.10 per 10,000 cases). The rate of ORTH VTEs (28 of 188,669 orthopaedic patients, 1.48 per 10,000 cases) was significantly lower than that of NORTH VTEs (345 of 621,428 nonorthopaedic patients, 5.55 per 10,000 cases; P<0.001). For the ORTH cohort, there was a significant difference in the proportion of deep vein thrombosis in the lower extremity (91%) compared with the upper extremity (9%) (P<0.001), while a more even distribution of NORTH deep vein thrombosis in the upper (50%) and lower (41%) extremities was appreciated. The primary risk factors for ORTH VTEs included surgery (93%; P<0.001), change in ambulatory status (61%; P<0.001), and trauma (18%; P<0.001), while the primary risk factors for NORTH VTEs included intravenous peripheral inserted central catheter/central line (61%; P<0.001) and cancer (27%; P=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric ORTH VTEs have a significantly lower incidence rate and different primary risk factors than those of NORTH VTEs. This information is useful for health care providers when making decisions regarding risk and prophylaxis in pediatric patients with orthopaedic and nonorthopaedic conditions. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Are Some Randomized Clinical Trials Impossible?

Congenital tibial pseudarthrosis is a rare condition seen in neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), and treatment is complex. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of bone morphogenetic protein (rhBMP-2; INFUSE bone graft) at time of tibial surgery was developed by the Neurofibromatosis Clinical Trials Consortium. Patients were randomized to receive rhBMP-2 that would, or would not, be added to the standard surgical procedure consisting of resection of pseudarthrosis tissue, insertion of a rigid intramedullary rod, and placement of autogenous iliac crest bone graft. Despite involvement of 16 centers with wide experience with NF1 orthopaedic management, only 5 patients (of 54 required) were able to be enrolled in the study during a 3-year time period. Because of the inability to recruit sufficient patients, this study was closed in June 2019, with plans to terminate. The obstacles that were encountered during the study are summarized. The authors question whether a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of a rare pediatric orthopaedic condition is possible to accomplish. Recommendations are provided to guide future studies of orthopaedic manifestations of NF1.Level of Evidence: Level V.

Congenital Pseudarthrosis of the Fibula: Controlling Ankle Valgus in a Heterogenous Condition.

BACKGROUND: Congenital pseudarthrosis of the fibula (CPF) is a rare disorder characterized by a deficiency in the continuity of the fibula and can lead to progressive ankle valgus malalignment. An existing classification system for CPF is imperfect and may contribute to heterogeneity in reporting and discrepancy of outcomes in the literature. METHODS: Fifteen patients with CPF treated at our institution between 1995 and 2017 were retrospectively identified. Only patients with dysplasia leading to spontaneous fracture or pseudarthrosis were included in this series. The median age at presentation was 2.5 years (range: 3 mo to 13.4 y). The median duration of follow-up from the initial presentation was 11.8 years (range: 2.0 to 24 y). Chart review and serial radiographs were analyzed to assess natural history and outcomes following surgery. RESULTS: The coexistence of tibial dysplasia in CPF is very common. Patients were classified into 3 groups based on the degree of tibial involvement-group 1: no evidence of tibial dysplasia, group 2: mild tibial dysplasia, and group 3: significant tibial dysplasia. Age at presentation and age at which fibular fracture occurred were progressively younger with a greater degree of tibial involvement (P<0.05). In the absence of surgical intervention, group 1 patients did not undergo progressive ankle valgus (defined as the valgus change in tibiotalar angle by ≥4 degrees), whereas all patients in groups 2 and 3 did (P<0.001). Fibular osteosynthesis was performed in 6 patients, with union seen only in group 1 patients. Ten patients underwent distal tibiofibular fusion, with no cases of nonunion seen. Distal tibiofibular fusion with or without medial distal tibial hemiepiphysiodesis halted the progression of ankle valgus in 8 of the 10 patients. Further progression of ankle valgus occurred only in patients who did not undergo concurrent medial distal tibial hemiepiphysiodesis and with considerable wedging of the distal tibial epiphysis at the time of fusion. CONCLUSIONS: Tibial dysplasia and CPF are intimately related. Grouping patients on this basis may help guide natural history and treatment and may explain discrepancies in findings in the literature. Fibular osteosynthesis, distal tibiofibular fusion, and medial distal tibial hemiepiphysiodesis may all have an important role in the treatment of CPF. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV-case series.

Management of Fasciotomy Incisions After Acute Compartment Syndrome: Is Delayed Primary Closure More Feasible in Children Compared With Adults?

BACKGROUND: Recent adult literature has demonstrated that in the setting of acute compartment syndrome (ACS), if fasciotomy wounds are not closed after the first debridement, they are unlikely to be closed via delayed primary closure (DPC). The purpose of this study was to report the success of DPC through serial debridement in children with fasciotomy wounds secondary to ACS and to determine whether length of hospital stay is negatively affected by adopting a DPC strategy. METHODS: We identified all patients treated with fasciotomy for ACS (aged 0 to18 y). Patient, injury, and treatment characteristics were summarized by fasciotomy treatment type. Patients were grouped as: primary closure, DPC, and flap or skin graft (F/SG). For patients who required additional debridements after initial fasciotomy, treatment success was defined as closure by DPC (without requiring F/SG). Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with additional surgeries, complications, and treatment success. RESULTS: A total of 82 children underwent fasciotomies for ACS. Fifteen (18%) patients were treated with primary closure at the time of their initial fasciotomy and were excluded from the remainder of the analysis, 48 (59%) patients underwent DPC, and 19 (23%) patients were treated with F/SG. The majority of delayed fasciotomy wounds were successfully closed by DPC (48/67, 72%) and the rate of successful closure remained consistent with each successive operative debridement. There were no differences across DPC and F/SG groups with respect to age, method of injury, or injury severity. Patients who underwent F/SG remained in the hospital for an average of 12 days compared with 8 days for those who underwent DPC (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In the setting of ACS, pediatric fasciotomy wounds that are not closed after the first postfasciotomy debridement still have a high likelihood of being closed through DPC with serial surgical debridement. In children, persisting with DPC strategy for fasciotomy closure after ACS is more successful than it is in adults. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Clinical outcomes and risk-factor analysis of the Ponseti Method in a low-resource setting: Clubfoot care in Haiti.

PURPOSE: The Ponseti Method has dramatically altered the management of clubfoot, with particular implications for limited-resource settings. We sought to describe outcomes of care and risk factors for sub-optimal results using the Ponseti Method in Haiti. METHODS: We conducted a records review of patients presenting from 2011-2015 to a CURE Clubfoot clinic in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. We report patient characteristics (demographics and clinical), treatment patterns (cast number/duration and tenotomy rates), and outcomes (relapse and complications). We compared treatment with benchmarks in high-income nations and used generalized linear models to identify risk factors for delayed presentation, increased number of casts, and relapse. RESULTS: Amongst 168 children, age at presentation ranged from 0 days (birth) to 4.4 years, 62% were male, 35% were born at home, 63% had bilateral disease, and 46% had idiopathic clubfeet. Prior treatment (RR 6.33, 95% CI 3.18-12.62) was associated with a higher risk of delayed presentation. Risk factors for requiring ≥ 10 casts included having a non-idiopathic diagnosis (RR 2.28, 95% CI 1.08-4.83) and higher Pirani score (RR 2.78 per 0.5 increase, 95% CI 1.17-6.64). Female sex (RR 1.54, 95% CI 1.01-2.34) and higher Pirani score (RR 1.09 per 0.5 increase, 95% CI 1.00-1.17) were risk factors for relapse. Compared to North American benchmarks, children presented later (median 4.1 wks [IQR 1.6-18.1] vs. 1 wk), with longer casting (12.5 wks [SD 9.8] vs. 7.1 wks), and higher relapse (43% vs. 22%). CONCLUSIONS: Higher Pirani score, prior treatment, non-idiopathic diagnosis, and female sex were associated with a higher risk of sub-optimal outcomes in this low-resource setting. Compared to high-income nations, serial casting began later, with longer duration and higher relapse. Identifying patients at risk for poor outcomes in a low-resource setting can guide counseling, program development, and resource allocation.

Osteoid Osteoma About the Hip in Children and Adolescents.

BACKGROUND: The etiology of hip pain in pediatric and adolescent patients can be unclear. Osteoid osteoma (OO) about the hip in children has only been described in case reports or small studies. The present study assessed the clinical presentation and diagnostic course, imaging, and treatment approaches in a large cohort of pediatric cases of OO about the hip. METHODS: Medical record and imaging results were reviewed for all cases of OO identified within or around the hip joint in patients <20 years old between January 1, 2003, and December 31, 2015, at a tertiary-care pediatric center. Demographic, clinical, and radiographic data were analyzed. RESULTS: Fifty children and adolescents (52% female; mean age, 12.4 years; age range, 3 to 19 years) were identified. Night pain (90%) and symptom relief with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (88%) were common clinical findings. Sclerosis/cortical thickening was visible in 58% of radiographs, although a radiolucent nidus was visible in only 42%. Diagnostic imaging findings included perilesional edema and a radiolucent nidus on 100% of available magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans, respectively. Initial alternative diagnoses were given in 23 cases (46%), the most common of which was femoroacetabular impingement (FAI). Delay in diagnosis of >6 months occurred in 43% of patients. Three patients underwent operative procedures for other hip diagnoses, but all had persistent postoperative pain until the OO was treated. Of the 41 patients (82%) who ultimately underwent radiofrequency ablation (RFA), 38 (93%) achieved complete post-RFA symptom resolution. CONCLUSIONS: Initial misdiagnosis, the most common of which was FAI, and delayed correct diagnosis are common in pediatric OO about the hip. Presenting complaints were variable and nonspecific MRI findings were frequent. Night pain and relief with NSAIDs were present in the vast majority of cases. CT scans provided definitive diagnosis in all patients who received them. As increasing numbers of young, active patients are being evaluated for various causes of hip pain, such as FAI, OO should not be overlooked in the differential diagnosis. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Quantitative X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry characterization of the components in DNA.

The great diversity of techniques to synthesize and use DNA microarrays has made them extremely flexible for a variety of applications. This flexibility also has made standardization difficult, leading to problems comparing data from these different systems. In this work, we use the surface science techniques of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) to analyze the components of DNA. The atomic ratios of the components of nucleobases, nucleosides, and nucleotides were characterized by XPS. The chemical shifts in the high-resolution XPS spectra allow for their relatively easy resolution. The unique positive and negative ions from the nucleobases, nucleosides, and nucleotides in their TOF-SIMS spectra were identified. This information was used to build a comprehensive table of all of the molecular ions. These standard spectra of DNA components can be used to predict the relative amounts of the bases within more complex molecules either by univariate analysis (i.e., by relating the base molecular ions to the sugar fragment ions within the nucleotides) or by multivariate analysis (e.g., principal component analysis). Our preliminary examination of four oligonucleotides shows promising results in that we can distinguish between two oligomers of similar composition using univariate and multivariate analysis, although additional studies are needed to expand this method to more complex oligomers.