A controlled comparison of the effectiveness and efficiency of two psychological therapies for posttraumatic stress disorder: eye movement desensitization and reprocessing vs. emotional freedom techniques.

The present study reports on the first ever controlled comparison between eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) and emotional freedom techniques (EFT) for posttraumatic stress disorder. A total of 46 participants were randomized to either EMDR (n = 23) or EFT (n = 23). The participants were assessed at baseline and then reassessed after an 8-week waiting period. Two further blind assessments were conducted at posttreatment and 3-months follow-up. Overall, the results indicated that both interventions produced significant therapeutic gains at posttreatment and follow-up in an equal number of sessions. Similar treatment effect sizes were observed in both treatment groups. Regarding clinical significant changes, a slightly higher proportion of patients in the EMDR group produced substantial clinical changes compared with the EFT group. Given the speculative nature of the theoretical basis of EFT, a dismantling study on the active ingredients of EFT should be subject to future research.

Posttraumatic symptomatology and dissociation in outpatients with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder.

A number of studies have concluded that dissociative features are common in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The present study aimed to investigate correlates of dissociation in outpatients with chronic PTSD in Scotland. For the purposes of this study, a total of 102 participants completed the Dissociative Experiences Scale, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, and the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. Information regarding trauma characteristics (i.e., type and presence of physical injury) was also collected. Regression analysis revealed that increased severity and frequency of posttraumatic symptoms, as measured by the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale total, was the only significant predictor of dissociation. In line with previous research, our findings indicate that chronic PTSD symptoms could be contributing to the maintenance of clinical dissociation and vice versa in this sample of Scottish outpatients.

Vividness of mental imagery in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): the role of depression.

The present study aimed to investigate demographics, trauma variables, PTSD symptomatology, co-morbid psychopathology, dissociation and personality variables as correlates of vividness of imagery (i.e. general ability to imagine objects) in people with PTSD. Participants were 98 outpatients with PTSD who completed a number of self- and assessor-rated measures. Vividness of imagery was assessed using the Betts' Questionnaire Upon Imagery (QMI). Regression analysis showed that the only statistically significant predictor of mental imagery was depression, as measured by the Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS). The implications of these results for the management of depression in people with PTSD are discussed.

Predicting treatment outcome on three measures for post-traumatic stress disorder.

The aim of the present study was to investigate predictors of treatment outcome for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) after treatment completion and at 15-months follow-up (n = 48), in a trial of Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR) versus Imaginal Exposure and Cognitive Restructuring (E+CR). Factors associated with treatment outcome were investigated using regression analyses with the mean change scores in three assessor and self-rated PTSD symptomatology measures, including the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS), the Impact of Events Scale (IES) and the PTSD Symptom Checklist (PCL) from pre- to post-treatment and pre-treatment to follow-up as the dependent variables and demographics, trauma, clinical and personality measures as independent variables. Irrespective to outcome measures and assessment points it was found that four variables were able to predict significantly treatment outcome. These included baseline PTSD symptomatology, number of sessions, gender and therapy type. Overall, our results showed that it is difficult to use pre-treatment variables as a powerful and reliable tool for predicting treatment outcome, as significant predictors were found to be sample-specific and outcome measure-specific. Clinical relevance of the present results and directions for future research are discussed.