Thoroughbred fatality and associated jockey falls and injuries in races in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, Australia: 2009-2014.

Monitoring racehorse fatality and associated jockey falls provides benchmarks for intervention strategies. The aims of this study were to describe the incidence of and reasons for fatalities in Thoroughbred horses during flat races in the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales (NSW), Australia, and to describe reported jockey falls and injuries associated with racehorse fatalities. A cohort study identified all racehorse fatalities reported through Racing NSW for the 2009-2010 to 2013-2014 racing seasons. Risks of racehorse fatality, fatal musculoskeletal injury, spontaneous death (as distinct from euthanasia) and racehorse fatality associated jockey falls and injuries were calculated using Poisson regression. A total of 167 horse fatalities were reported, with an overall incidence of 0.59 deaths/1000 starts. Forty-nine reasons for horse fatality were reported, although post-mortem examinations were conducted on only 52/165 (31.5%) horses. Musculoskeletal injury accounted for 144/167 (86.2%) fatalities, with an incidence of 0.52/1000 starts. Fractures comprised 96/167 (57.5%) fatalities, with the fetlock or proximal sesamoid bones being the most common fracture location, comprising 36/96 (37.5%) fractures. Only 22/166 (13.3%) racehorse fatalities were due to spontaneous death, representing an incidence of 0.08/1000 starts. A total of 50 racehorse fatality associated jockey falls were reported (incidence of 0.18/1000 starts), with 32 reported jockey injuries (incidence of 0.12/1000 starts). Most racehorse fatality associated jockey injuries occurred to the limbs (17/32, 53.1%), particularly the upper limb. The estimates for both horse fatality and associated jockey injury were comparable with previous estimates from other jurisdictions internationally.

Identification of Tobacco streak virus in Cranberry and the Association of TSV with Berry Scarring.

Cranberry plants bearing disfigured, scarred fruit were reported by growers in the major cranberry-growing region of central Wisconsin in July 2012. Plants bearing scarred fruit have since been observed in Massachusetts and New Jersey. Three complementary methods provided evidence of Tobacco streak virus (TSV) in symptomatic plants: (i) leaves and scarred berries tested positive for TSV by double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; (ii) quasi-isometric particles approximately 33 nm in diameter were extracted from leaves of symptomatic plants and visualized using transmission electron microscopy; and (iii) coat protein gene sequence analysis revealed 94 to 99% nucleotide similarity with reference TSV sequences. In newer cultivars, 99% of uprights with scarred berries tested positive for TSV. In older cultivars, 31% of uprights with scarred berries tested positive for TSV and the remaining 69% of uprights with scarred berries tested positive for Blueberry shock virus. TSV overwintered in cranberry plants, and leaves, pollen, and fruit tested positive for TSV the year following symptom occurrence. Attempts to inoculate cranberry using infected pollen or sap as inoculum failed, but several herbaceous hosts tested TSV positive following mechanical inoculation. Phylogenetic analysis of the coat protein gene of 26 TSV isolates from various cultivars of cranberry in Wisconsin, New Jersey, and Massachusetts revealed diversity. This work provides information that will be useful in understanding the epidemiology of TSV in cranberry and in the development of management strategies.

Effects of Simulated Hail Events and Subsequent Fungicide Applications on Cranberry Fruit Rot Incidence and Yield.

Storms containing hail are a common occurrence in Wisconsin, with a few or many cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) growers being affected every year. Growers usually apply fungicides immediately following hail events to prevent fruit rot, despite a lack of research to support this practice. We conducted field trials in 2010 and 2011 to address the question of whether applying fungicides to injured fruit reduces fruit rot incidence (% rotten fruit). Hail damage was simulated by forcibly projecting pea gravel into cranberry beds using a mist-blower sprayer modified for this purpose, and the fungicides azoxystrobin or copper hydroxide were applied to fruit immediately after applying gravel. Fruit rot incidence and yield were evaluated within 2 weeks prior to commercial harvest in late September and early October. Fruit rot incidence was greater (P ≤ 0.05) and yield was lower (P < 0.05) in plots treated with gravel than in the nontreated control plots in six of seven trials. Fungicides did not reduce fruit rot incidence (P ≥ 0.05) in gravel-treated plots compared to the nontreated control in six of seven trials. However, in a trial conducted on relatively immature berries, fruit rot incidence in gravel-treated plots treated with azoxystrobin was less (P = 0.0103) than fruit rot incidence in gravel-treated plots receiving no fungicide treatment. In that same trial, fruit rot incidence was not reduced (P = 0.1243) in gravel-treated plots treated with copper hydroxide compared to gravel-treated plots that were not treated with fungicide. Results suggest that under most circumstances, if cranberries are damaged by hail, it is unlikely that an application of fungicide will reduce the amount of fruit rot at the time of harvest.

Effects of cherry leaf spot on photosynthesis in tart cherry 'Montmorency' foliage.

Results described here span a total of three field seasons and quantitatively depict the effects of an economically important fungal pathogen (Blumeriella jaapii) on tart cherry (Prunus cerasus 'Montmorency') leaf physiology. For the first time, leaf photosynthesis, stomatal conductance (g(s)), maximum ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylation rate (V(cmax)), and maximum electron transport (J(max)) were measured as functions of visible cherry leaf spot disease (CLS) severity. Defined as the proportion of chlorotic and necrotic tissue per leaf, CLS severity was estimated from leaves of mature 'Montmorency' trees in 2007, 2008, and 2009. Briefly, as visible disease severity increased, all of the leaf-level physiological parameters decreased significantly (P < 0.01) and disproportionately. Thus, the effects of visible symptoms on leaf photosynthetic metabolic function encroached upon asymptomatic tissue as well. Impairment of photosynthetic metabolism in 'Montmorency' tart cherry leaves due to CLS appears to be mediated through disproportionately large perturbations in g(s), V(cmax), and J(max). These findings offer a new perspective on the amount of damage that this serious disease can inflict.

Culture-dependent and culture-independent assessment of bacteria in the apple phyllosphere.

AIMS: Bacterial communities in the apple phyllosphere were examined quantitatively and qualitatively by applying culture-dependent and culture-independent methods. METHODS AND RESULTS: Populations estimated by viewing cells stained with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole generally were at least 100-1000 times greater than populations estimated by culturing on tryptic soy agar (TSA). Of the 44 operational taxonomic units (OTUs; cut-off threshold of 97%) detected in total, five bacterial orders containing 23 OTUs were identified by culturing on TSA, whereas nine orders containing 33 OTUs were identified by 16S rRNA gene cloning of DNA extracted from apple leaf surfaces. Twelve of the 44 OTUs were shared between cultured isolates and 16S rRNA gene clones and included the orders Burkholderiales, Pseudomonadales, Rhizobiales and Sphingomonadales. Three OTUs within the genus Sphingomonas accounted for 40% of isolates and 68% of clones. The Actinomycetales were found only among isolates, whereas the Bacteroidales, Enterobacteriales, Myxococales and Sphingobacteriales were represented in the 16S rRNA gene clone libraries but were absent among isolates. CONCLUSIONS: Culture-independent methods revealed greater numbers and greater richness of bacteria on apple leaves than found by culturing. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This is the first study to directly compare culture-dependent and independent approaches for assessing bacterial communities in the phyllosphere. The biases introduced by different methods will have a significant impact on studies related to phyllosphere ecology, biological control of plant diseases, reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes and food safety.

Prognostic markers for myeloid neoplasms: a comparative review of the literature and goals for future investigation.

Myeloid neoplasms include cancers associated with both rapid (acute myeloid leukemias) and gradual (myelodysplastic syndromes and myeloproliferative neoplasms) disease progression. Percentage of blast cells in marrow is used to separate acute (rapid) from chronic (gradual) and is the most consistently applied prognostic marker in veterinary medicine. However, since there is marked variation in tumor progression within groups, there is a need for more complex schemes to stratify animals into specific risk groups. In people with acute myeloid leukemia (AML), pretreatment karyotyping and molecular genetic analysis have greater utility as prognostic markers than morphologic and immunologic phenotypes. Karyotyping is not available as a prognostic marker for AML in dogs and cats, but progress in molecular genetics has created optimism about the eventual ability of veterinarians to discern conditions potentially responsive to medical intervention. In people with myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS), detailed prognostic scoring systems have been devised that use various combinations of blast cell percentage, hematocrit, platelet counts, unilineal versus multilineal cytopenias and dysplasia, karyotype, gender, age, immunophenotype, transfusion dependence, and colony-forming assays. Predictors of outcome for animals with MDS have been limited to blast cell percentage, anemia versus multilineal cytopenias, and morphologic phenotype. Prognostic markers for myeloproliferative neoplasms (eg, polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia) include clinical and hematological factors and in people also include cytogenetics and molecular genetics. Validation of prognostic markers for myeloid neoplasms in animals has been thwarted by the lack of a large case series that requires cooperation across institutions and veterinary specialties. Future progress requires overcoming these barriers.

Recommended guidelines for the conduct and evaluation of prognostic studies in veterinary oncology.

There is an increasing need for more accurate prognostic and predictive markers in veterinary oncology because of an increasing number of treatment options, the increased financial costs associated with treatment, and the emotional stress experienced by owners in association with the disease and its treatment. Numerous studies have evaluated potential prognostic and predictive markers for veterinary neoplastic diseases, but there are no established guidelines or standards for the conduct and reporting of prognostic studies in veterinary medicine. This lack of standardization has made the evaluation and comparison of studies difficult. Most important, translating these results to clinical applications is problematic. To address this issue, the American College of Veterinary Pathologists' Oncology Committee organized an initiative to establish guidelines for the conduct and reporting of prognostic studies in veterinary oncology. The goal of this initiative is to increase the quality and standardization of veterinary prognostic studies to facilitate independent evaluation, validation, comparison, and implementation of study results. This article represents a consensus statement on the conduct and reporting of prognostic studies in veterinary oncology from veterinary pathologists and oncologists from around the world. These guidelines should be considered a recommendation based on the current state of knowledge in the field, and they will need to be continually reevaluated and revised as the field of veterinary oncology continues to progress. As mentioned, these guidelines were developed through an initiative of the American College of Veterinary Pathologists' Oncology Committee, and they have been reviewed and endorsed by the World Small Animal Veterinary Association.

Lipomodelling of the breast: a review.

BACKGROUND: Autologous fat transplantation has been used to correct cosmetic deformities in almost all areas of the body. In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the use of fatty tissue to fill defects resulting from breast conserving surgery (BCS) and asymmetries after reconstructive breast surgery. METHODS: A Medline database search was performed, and the published evidence was reviewed. RESULTS & CONCLUSION: We describe and discuss the technique and indications, advantages, disadvantages and future direction of fat transfer to the breast. SEARCH METHODOLOGY: A Medline database search was used to retrieve relevant literature. Key search words used were: breast fat transfer, fat auto-transplantation, adipose tissue injection and lipomodelling. As a number of original articles are in French these were translated and used in addition to the English publications.

Effects of Copper-Based Fungicides on Foliar Gas Exchange in Tart Cherry.

In the Great Lakes region of the United States, cherry growers are poised to re-adopt copper-based fungicides to manage cherry leaf spot disease (CLS), caused by Blumeriella jaapii. However, application of copper is often associated with leaf bronzing. In growth chamber experiments, bronzing was observed on foliage of tart cherry (Prunus cerasus 'Montmorency') seedlings 1 week following application of a copper-based fungicide, only when leaves were also exposed to nightly dew. In potted, 1-year-old trees outdoors, light-saturated rates of net CO2 assimilation (A) and stomatal conductance (gs) were not affected by treatment with copper sulfate, chlorothalonil, tebuconazole, or trifloxystrobin compared to a nonsprayed control. In 2005 and 2006, A and gs were measured during late summer on leaves of mature trees in an orchard subjected to the following fungicide programs: synthetic fungicides only; synthetic fungicides integrated with copper-based fungicides; or not sprayed. Bronzing symptoms were observed on trees sprayed with copper. Regression analysis revealed that neither A nor gs decreased as leaf surface area affected by bronzing increased (R2 = 0.004, P = 0.80 and R2 = 0.006, P = 0.74, respectively). Leaf bronzing associated with application of copper-based fungicides may therefore be inconsequential to foliar gas exchange in tart cherry during late summer.

Adaptation of an Apple Sooty Blotch and Flyspeck Warning System for the Upper Midwest United States.

A warning system for sooty blotch and flyspeck (SBFS) of apple, developed in the southeastern United States, uses cumulative hours of leaf wetness duration (LWD) to predict the timing of the first appearance of signs. In the Upper Midwest United States, however, this warning system has resulted in sporadic disease control failures. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether the warning system's algorithm could be modified to provide more reliable assessment of SBFS risk. Hourly LWD, rainfall, relative humidity (RH), and temperature data were collected from orchards in Iowa, North Carolina, and Wisconsin in 2005 and 2006. Timing of the first appearance of SBFS signs was determined by weekly scouting. Preliminary analysis using scatterplots and boxplots suggested that cumulative hours of RH ≥ 97% could be a useful predictor of SBFS appearance. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was used to compare the predictive performance of cumulative LWD and cumulative hours of RH ≥ 97%. Cumulative hours of RH ≥ 97% was a more conservative and accurate predictor than cumulative LWD for 15 site years in the Upper Midwest, but not for four site years in North Carolina. Performance of the SBFS warning system in the Upper Midwest and climatically similar regions may be improved if cumulative hours of RH ≥ 97% were substituted for cumulative LWD to predict the first appearance of SBFS.

Consent and complications: risk disclosure varies widely between individual surgeons.

AIMS: To assess variations in consent practice for a single operative procedure, namely laparoscopic cholecystectomy, particularly with respect to the frequency with which potential complications are discussed with patients. METHODS: Postal questionnaire sent to general surgeons in the West Midlands and to UK members of the Association of Endoscopic Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland. Respondents were asked to estimate how often they discussed particular complications with their patients pre-operatively. RESULTS: Conversion to open cholecystectomy was the most frequently discussed complication. Other complications were much less likely to be mentioned overall and there was disturbing variation between individual surgeons in the frequency with which certain complications were discussed, particularly the risk of bile duct injury. CONCLUSIONS: In order for consent to be informed, patients need to be aware of significant risks. Our results indicate a lack of consensus from surgeons as to which risks are significant for this operation and this is likely to be true for other procedures.

Evaluation of Sampling Strategies for Determining Incidence of Cranberry Fruit Rot and Fruit Rot Fungi.

Two sampling strategies were compared and sources of variability in the sampling protocols analyzed to optimize sampling methods for studies of cranberry fruit rot that occurs in the field (i.e., field rot). For the first method, fruit were dry picked by hand from randomly assigned quadrats; for the second method, fruit were scooped from harvest floodwaters. Rot incidence, which ranged from 1.8 to 9.7%, did not differ significantly between upland and lowland sites or, in general, between dry-picked and wet-harvested samples. There were no consistent differences between upland and lowland sites in the frequency of isolation of any fungus from either rotten or sound fruit. The incidence of certain saprophytic and soilborne fungi was greater in wet-harvested compared with dry-picked fruit. In general, rot incidence and incidence of various fungal taxa isolated from fruit varied more among samples within sites than among sites. Site type (i.e., upland or lowland) was never a major source of variability. These findings suggest that if the goal were to assess the occurrence of cranberry fruit rot within a region, intensive within-site sampling would be necessary, but site type would not be an important consideration, at least in Wisconsin, where this study was conducted.

A comparative review of melanocytic neoplasms.

Melanoma is a devastating disease frequently encountered within both veterinary and human medicine. Molecular changes linked with neoplastic transformation of melanocytes include mutations in genes that encode proteins intrinsic to the regulatory pathways of two tumor suppressor proteins (retinoblastoma protein and p53), proto-oncogene mutation to oncogenes, altered expression of epithelial cadherin and CD44 adhesion molecules, and upregulation of angiogenic factors and other growth factors. Histologic evaluation of the primary mass is the most common means of diagnosis, with cytology used more frequently to document metastasis. Melanoma's highly variable histologic and cytologic patterns can make diagnosis by either method problematic. Adherent epithelioid morphology, including signet ring forms, and nonadherent round and spindle forms are recognized, with pigmentation an inconsistent finding. The site of the tumor, the thickness of the primary tumor or depth of invasion, and the number of mitotic figures per high-power field or per millimeter are used histologically to predict biologic behavior, whereas site and degree of pleomorphism are typically used for cytologic preparations. Diagnosis of amelanotic melanoma can be aided by ancillary diagnostic techniques. Tumor cells are usually positive for vimentin, S100, neuron-specific enolase, and Melan-A, and negative for cytokeratin. Melan-A as a positive marker is not as sensitive as the others are but is likely more specific. Monoclonal antibodies to human melanosome-specific antigens 1 and 5 cross-react with canine antigens for a combined sensitivity rate of 83%. Mouse monoclonal antibody IBF9 specifically recognizes canine melanoma antigen and also has good sensitivity. Serologic markers, including cytokines, cell adhesion molecules, and melanoma-inhibitory activity, are being investigated as potential sentinels of melanoma. Currently, there is no single diagnostic technique capable of differentiating benign from malignant melanocytic neoplasms or predicting survival time.

Effects of Calcium Salts on the Cranberry Fruit Rot Disease Complex.

Calcium salts were applied during the growing season to fresh-fruit cranberry beds to test their effects on cranberry fruit rot incidence and the incidence of specific fungi isolated from rotten and sound cranberry fruit at the time of harvest and after storage. Calcium salts did not affect fruit rot incidence, nor did they affect the recovery of specific fungi from berries. The field treatments did not result in higher calcium content in mature berries, nor did they affect the force required to penetrate the berry epidermis. Calcium propionate inhibited growth in vitro of Allantophomopsis cytisporea, A. lycopodina, Coleophoma empetri, Fusicoccum putrefaciens, and Physalospora vaccinii. Calcium chloride and calcium nitrate inhibited growth of Coleophoma empetri and Fusicoccum putrefaciens, but these salts enhanced growth of Physalospora vaccinii. P. vaccinii was the fungus most frequently isolated from rotten berries at the time of harvest. The fungi most frequently isolated from rotten berries after several weeks in storage varied among sites. P. vaccinii, which was common in sound fruit at harvest, persisted in sound fruit in storage but was also isolated frequently from rotten berries after storage. A. lycopodina and F. putrefaciens, which were isolated infrequently from sound berries at the time of harvest, were isolated frequently from rotten berries after storage. In two of four trials, no fungi were isolated from a large proportion of fruit that decayed in storage.

Late normal tissue sequelae in the second decade after high dose radiation therapy with combined photons and conformal protons for locally advanced prostate cancer.

PURPOSE: We determined the long-term normal tissue effects of 77.4 Gy. delivered to the prostate in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Between 1976 and 1992, 167 men with stages T3 to 4 prostate cancer were treated on protocol with 50.4 Gy. photons at 1.8 Gy. per fraction using a 4-field box arrangement, followed by a conformal perineal proton boost of 27 Gy. (cobalt Gy. equivalent) in 11 fractions. The chart was reviewed and 39 of the 42 surviving patients were interviewed. Median followup was 13.1 years (range 7 to 23). Normal tissue morbidity was recorded using Radiation Therapy Oncology Group criteria and the late effects normal tissue scale. RESULTS: The actuarial incidence of grade 2 or greater genitourinary morbidity was 59% at 15 years. However, these grade 2 or greater problems persisted to the time of the interview in only 7 of 39 cases. The actuarial incidence of grade 2 or greater hematuria was 21% at 5 years and 47% at 15. For grade 3 or greater hematuria the risk was 3% and 8% at 5 and 15 years, respectively. No patient required cystectomy but 1 required diversion for morbidity. Urethral stricture and urinary incontinence with pads needed developed in 4 and 3 men, respectively. This particular morbidity was strongly associated with previous or subsequent prostate surgery. The actuarial incidence of grade 2 or greater gastrointestinal morbidity was 13% at 5 and 15 years, while grade 1 rectal bleeding occurred in another 41%. CONCLUSIONS: High dose conformal radiation to the prostate is followed by a high rate of low grade rectal bleeding but a low rate of grade 2 or higher gastrointestinal morbidity. This rate is stable and does not increase beyond 5 years. Genitourinary morbidity continues to develop well into the second decade after treatment, although high grade morbidity is uncommon. These findings do not suggest that the modern trend toward high dose prostate treatment with conformal techniques will result in a high incidence of serious and permanent late sequelae but it appears that hematuria will be common.

A cost-effectiveness approach to drug subsidy and pricing in Australia.

The Australian government offers its citizens subsidies on a select list of pharmaceuticals. For a drug to qualify for inclusion on this list, its manufacturer must demonstrate that the drug is both clinically effective and cost-effective. In part, this measure, along with others, was introduced to improve clinical and economic outcomes. Although this evidence-based system has provided transparency and consistency in decision making about which drugs will be covered, it may not have contained the rate of increase in drug costs.

Sensitivity and specificity of methods of assessing the regional lymph nodes for evidence of metastasis in dogs and cats with solid tumors.

OBJECTIVE: To determine sensitivity and specificity of physical examination, fine-needle aspiration, and needle core biopsy of the regional lymph nodes for evidence of metastasis in dogs and cats with solid tumors. DESIGN: Case series. ANIMALS: 37 dogs and 7 cats. PROCEDURE: Regional lymph nodes were evaluated by means of physical examination (palpation), fine-needle aspiration, and needle core biopsy. Results were compared with results of histologic examination of the entire lymph node, the current standard. RESULTS: Tumors included 18 sarcomas, 16 carcinomas, 7 mast cell tumors, and 3 other tumors. Carcinomas were more likely to have metastasized to the regional lymph node (7/16 animals) than were sarcomas (2/18). Sensitivity and specificity of physical examination were 60 and 72%, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity of cytologic examination of fine-needle aspirates were 100 and 96%, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity of histologic examination of needle core biopsy specimens were 64 and 96%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that fine-needle aspiration may be a sensitive and specific method of evaluating the regional lymph nodes in dogs and cats with solid tumors, because results correlated well with results of histologic examination of the entire lymph node. Physical examination alone was not a reliable method and should not be used to decide whether to aspirate or biopsy the regional lymph nodes.

Correlation between leukocytosis and necropsy findings in dogs with immune-mediated hemolytic anemia: 34 cases (1994-1999).

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether severity of leukocytosis correlates with severity of postmortem lesions in dogs with immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA). DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 34 dogs with IMHA that had CBC performed within 48 hours prior to death and complete necropsy examinations. PROCEDURE: Dogs were independently assigned to 4 leukocytosis groups (within reference range; mild leukocytosis, moderate leukocytosis, marked leukocytosis) and 3 lesion severity groups (mild lesions, moderate lesions, severe lesions). RESULTS: Moderate to marked leukocytosis correlated with moderate to severe postmortem lesions. Ischemic necrosis within liver, kidney, heart, lung, and spleen attributable to thromboembolic disease or anemic hypoxia were the most common important lesions found at necropsy. None of the dogs with mild lesions had moderate or marked leukocytosis. Four of 14 severely affected dogs had WBC counts within reference range, but all 4 had neutrophilic left shifts. Three of these 4 dogs had toxic change in neutrophils. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Moderate to marked leukocytosis, neutrophilic left shift, and toxic change in neutrophils in dogs with IMHA should alert clinicians to the potential for moderate to severe tissue injury, which could complicate treatment and worsen prognosis. Lesions appear to be secondary to anemic hypoxia, thromboembolic disease, or both; therefore, treatment objectives should focus on improving blood oxygen-carrying capacity and monitoring for thromboembolic disease.