Risk factors associated with contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in goats of Amhara region, Ethiopia.

Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a serious contagious disease of goats, sheep and wild ruminants caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subspecies capripneumoniae. The disease is known for its high mortality, morbidity and economic losses. A cross-sectional study using multistage cluster sampling technique was conducted in Amhara region from January 2019 to July 2019 to estimate seroprevalence and identify risk factors of CCPP occurrence in the region. A total of 2080 goats from 61 villages and 12 districts of the region were tested for CCPP serostatus using Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (C-ELISA). A multilevel mixed-effect logistic regression model was used to identify risk factors of CCPP seropositivity at animal and flock-level. The serum sample results revealed an overall animal level seroprevalence of 5.1% (95% CI: 3.8-6.6) and flock-level prevalence of 26.0% (95% CI: 19.7-33.4). At individual animal level, presence of other health problems (OR = 45.9 (95% CI: 25.3-83.4)), age (adult age (OR = 6.2 (95% CI:3.4-11.4)) and old age (OR = 13.1 (95% CI: 6.2-27.8))), and breed type (Afar (OR= 32.3 (95% CI: 2.9-366.1)), Central highland (OR=13.7 (95% CI: 1.3-140.6)), and western highland (OR=16.2 (95% CI: 1.4-185.7))) were identified as risk factors for CCPP seropositivity. In contrast, contact with other flocks (OR = 59.9 (95% CI: 6.1-585.6)), presence of trade route (OR = 3.1 (95% CI: 1.0-9.1)) and presence of sheep (OR = 2.6 (95% CI: 1.2-5.7)) were flock-level risk factors for CCPP seropositivity. Generally, CCPP appears to be common among goats of Amhara region. Goat flocks dominated with older age animals; breeds of Afar, central highland, and western highland; raise with sheep; have contact with other flocks; and kept along trade routes are more at risk for CCPP. Hence, awareness creation to the producers, movement control, and regular prophylactic vaccination should be considered to control CCPP in Amhara region.

Knowledge, attitude and practice related to rabies among residents of Amhara region, Ethiopia.

Background: Rabies is an important viral zoonotic disease with high fatality rate and economic losses. The impact of rabies is considerably high in Asia and Africa. The study was designed to assess the community's rabies knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) and their determinants in Amhara region, Ethiopia. Methods: The study was done based on a questionnaire survey of 899 participants in towns and rural districts of Amhara region. Multistage cluster sampling procedure was used to select participants. Quantitative score was generated for KAP and the scores were dichotomized as adequate and inadequate knowledge, desirable and undesirable attitude, and good and poor practice. Descriptive statics and mixed effect logistic regression considering kebele and villages as a random effect was used to see the association of predictor variables towards adequate knowledge, desirable attitude and good practice. Results: About 61%, 72% and 45% of the respondents have adequate knowledge, desirable attitude and good practice scores, respectively. Almost all (99%) of the respondents rightly claimed that rabies is transmitted through bite of dogs. Majority of the participants (76.8%) strongly agree that rabies is an important zoonotic disease that can threaten the lives of humans and animals. Only 8% of the respondents had a practice of washing and rinsing dog bite wounds for the prevention of rabies. Female participants were less likely to have adequate knowledge than males (OR = 0.58, 95% CI = 0.35-0.96). Respondents in urban areas were more likely to have desirable attitude than rural residents (OR = 12.4, CI = 1.38-11.67). Conclusion: The study showed that participants have good knowledge and attitude towards rabies but poor rabies prevention and control practices. The community public health education should focus on translation of these good knowledge and favorable attitude into practices that effectively reduces rabies burden.

Prevalence of subclinical mastitis, associated risk factors and antimicrobial susceptibility of the pathogens isolated from milk samples of dairy cows in Northwest Ethiopia.

Subclinical mastitis (SCM) is a problem of dairy cattle worldwide that affects the income of dairy farmers and besides a health risk to humans. A cross-sectional study was carried out to estimate prevalence, identify risk factors of SCM and antimicrobial susceptibility test of bacteria isolated from SCM quarters. California Mastitis Test (CMT) positive milk samples were cultured and bacteria isolated. The isolated bacteria were checked for their antimicrobial susceptibility using Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. The study findings showed that 32.7% of the quarters and 60.1% of the cows were CMT positive. The isolated bacteria were 29.5% Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and 9.3% Streptococcus agalactiae (Str. agalactae). In the risk factors study, cows from farms of poor hygiene, increased age and stage of lactation had higher odds of SCM. Of the isolated bacterial species, 75.7% and 71.4% of S. aureus isolates were resistant to the effects of penicillin and ampicillin, respectively. Streptococcus agalactiae were resistant to the effects of oxytetracycline (76.9%), streptomycin (61.5%) and cloxacillin (53.8%). Whereas the majority of S. aureus (98.6%) and Str. agalactiae (88.5%) were susceptible to the effects of gentamycin and Clindamycin respectively. In conclusion, SCM had high level of prevalence and associated risk factors with pathogens that were resistant to commonly used antimicrobials. Implementing strict preventive measures and limiting spread of pathogens is a preferred approach rather than treatment with antibiotics to control mastitis in the study area.

Serotyping and Seroprevalence of Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, and Bibersteinia trehalosi and Assessment of Determinants of Ovine Pasteurellosis in West Amhara Sub-region, Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study was undertaken in four (4) districts of the West Amhara sub-region of Ethiopia with the aim of assessing the diversity and distribution of serotypes of Pasteurella species, their seroprevalence, and associated risk factors, and knowledge, attitude, and practice of farmers toward ovine pasteurellosis. A total of 600 sheep sera were collected using multistage cluster sampling. Each sample was examined for the presence of six (6) serotype-specific antibodies using an indirect haemagglutination test. We are reporting a higher seroprevalence of 90.17% (541/600) in which all seropositive animals were shown to have been co-infected with multiple serotypes. Individual serotype prevalence showed that serotype A7 has the highest prevalence of 77.83% followed by A2 (74.33%), T15 (64%), T4 (62%), PA (60%), and A1 (39.17%). In this study, being female [odds ratio (OR): 2.45, 95% CI (1.09-5.52), p = 0.031] and living in high altitude areas [OR: 20.29, 95% CI (2.54-161.95), p = 0.004] were found to be significantly associated with sero-positivity. A questionnaire survey (n = 384) employed in a face-to-face interview was used to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice of farmers related to ovine pasteurellosis. Accordingly, the majority (72.4%) of respondents had an inadequate knowledge level of the disease. The proportion of farmers with a favorable attitude and good practices toward the disease was 50.26 and 77.6%, respectively. This study is highly indicative that ovine pasteurellosis is a ubiquitous disease in the study area challenging the sheep production sector. The existence of diverse serotypes reported to lack cross-protective immunity is likely to explain why the current vaccination practice with the mono-serotype Pasteurella multocida biotype A vaccine is not providing adequate protection against outbreaks of the disease. Prioritization of one or more serotypes for inclusion in a multivalent vaccine should be dictated by the abundance and distribution of a particular serotype, its clinical importance, and its resultant economic impact. Furthermore, training farmers on key aspects of the disease is vital in the implementation of effective disease management strategies through a participatory approach. Data from the remaining regions of the country could help realize the development of an effective vaccine that works best at the national level.

Reduced Milk Production, Economic Losses, and Risk Factors Associated to Subclinical Hypocalcemia in Holstein Friesian × Zebu Crossbreed Cows in North-West Ethiopia.

Hypocalcemia is a metabolic disorder that occurs when calcium leaves the blood to support milk production or for the growth of the fetus faster than calcium can be put back into the blood. Subclinical hypocalcemia (SCH) refers to clinically normal cows but with concentrations of calcium lower than measured in normal cows. A study was conducted to estimate economic losses and to identify risk factors associated with SCH in Holstein Friesian × Zebu crossbreed Cows in North-West Ethiopia. A total of 221 lactating dairy cows obtained from 81 dairy farms were selected and serum samples were collected and analyzed to estimate the level of calcium in the serum using an automated electrolyte analyzer (Roch, UVL Japan, 2014). Forty-seven cows obtained from 12 farms were grouped into two: cows with SCH and cows without SCH and milk yield was measured for eight consecutive days to estimate milk production loss associated with SCH. Prevalence was estimated and univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to identify determinants of SCH. The prevalence of SCH was 20.3% (51/221, 90% CI = 18.6%-28.1%). Grazing on pasture, membership to dairy cooperative, feeding above the cows' requirement (based on farmers' opinion), and previous experience of metritis reduced the odds of SCH (P < 0.05). The average economic losses associated with reduced milk production due to SCH were 11.25 Ethiopian Birr (ETB) (1 ETB = 0.023 US Dollar) and 3,026.25 ETB (69.6 US Dollar) per cow per lactation, respectively. The main findings of the study have shown that SCH was a problem in crossbreed dairy cows in Northwestern Ethiopia and identified few risk factors that could be targeted to mitigate the problem. Actually, in this study, the economic cost of SCH was significant and needs attention in the dairy extension and dairy health training programs.

Health and economic burden of foodborne zoonotic diseases in Amhara region, Ethiopia.

Diseases from food of animal origin are common health problems in Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was carried out to estimate health and economic burden, and to identify demographic factors associated with community awareness of foodborne zoonotic diseases in Amhara region, Ethiopia. Data was collected from 435 households in three towns: Gondar, Lalibela and Debark. A retrospective data was also collected from health records in each town. The health burden due to zoonotic diseases was estimated at 0.2, 0.1 and 1.3 DALYs per household per year and at 73.2, 146.6 and 1,689.5 DALYs out of 100,000 populations per year in Gondar, Lalibela and Debark, respectively. The overall health burden due to foodborne zoonotic diseases (aggregated over the 435 households in the three towns) was estimated to be 89.9 DALYs per 100,000 populations per year. The economic impact of foodborne zoonotic diseases in the three towns of Amhara regional state was 278.98 Ethiopian Birr (ETB) (1ETB = 0.025 US Dollar) per household per year and 121,355.68 ETB per year. Costs of preventive measures followed by costs of patients' time made the highest contribution while costs of diagnosis made the lowest contribution to the total economic burden of foodborne zoonotic diseases. From a total of 435 respondents, 305 (70.1%) had known the presence of zoonotic diseases. Level of education, number of families in the house and income were highly associated with awareness of zoonosis. Although majority of respondents had known zoonotic diseases exists (70.1%) and disease can be acquired from animal source food (63.2%), the health and economic burden associated to foodborne zoonotic diseases are still high. Therefore, changing mindset and practical training aiming in controlling foodborne zoonotic diseases may be suggested to the community in the health improvement extension service.

Prevalence of bovine viral diarrhea virus antibodies and risk factors in dairy cattle in Gondar city, Northwest Ethiopia.

Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) is a disease that affects cattle and other ruminants worldwide and causes considerable economic losses. A cross-sectional study was carried out between December 2017 and July 2018 with the aim to estimate the prevalence of Bovine Viral Diarrhea virus (BVDV) antibodies and to identify potential risk factors associated with the occurrence of the disease in dairy cattle in peri-urban areas of Gondar city, Northwest Ethiopia. A total of 339 serum samples obtained from randomly selected dairy cattle aged 6 months and older were assayed using a BVDV antibody competitive-Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (c-ELISA) kit. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate antibody prevalence of BVDV at animal and herd-level and logistic regression was used to identify potential risk factors. The study findings showed that the animal-level antibody prevalence of BVDV in the study area was 26.84 % (95 % CI: 22.1 %-31.6 %) and the herd-level seroprevalence was 68.3 % (95 % CI: 56.2 %-80.4 %). Logistic regression model demonstrated that age >2 years (OR = 4.75, 95 % CI: 2.20-10.26), herd size >11 (OR = 7.28, 95 % CI: 2.50-21.22), and poor farm hygiene (OR = 3.69, 95 % CI: 1.94-7.02), are potential risk factors associated with BVDV infection (P < 0.05). However, sex, faecal consistency and housing system were not associated with BVDV serostatus. The animal- and herd-level seroprevalence reports in Northwest Ethiopia can serve as a baseline finding for future BVD epidemiological investigations and to inform future control programs in the study region.

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia in Selected Districts of North Gondar Zone, Ethiopia.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is an infectious and highly contagious respiratory disease of cattle and water buffalo, which is caused by the Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides small colony. It induces significant economic losses and leads to a serious food security problem, negatively influencing peoples' livelihoods in affected countries. The disease has been reported in different parts of Ethiopia with prevalence ranging from 1.78 to 96%. However, there is not enough epidemiological information about CBPP in the northwestern part of the country, particularly in North Gondar Administrative Zone. This cross-sectional study, therefore, was conducted in four selected districts (Metema, Alefa, Quara, and Dembia) of North Gondar Administrative Zone to detect the incursion and estimate the seroprevalence of CBPP and to identify the potential predisposing factors associated with the spread and occurrence of CBPP in the area. A total of 751 serum samples were collected from 41 herds (villages) having no history of CBPP vaccination. Information like age, sex, breed, herd size, and management were collected during blood sample collection. Data related to agro-climatic zone, trade trekking route from or through CBPP endemic/epidemic zone, transhumance grazing route, vehicle route, and bordering with CBPP epidemic/endemic zone were obtained from district agricultural offices. The serum was screened for CBPP using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) test. The animal level and herd level apparent seroprevalences were 12.92% (95% CI: 10.70-15.52) and 65.85% (95% CI: 49.57-79.10), respectively. The true animal level and herd level prevalences were estimated at 20.13% (95% CI: 16.64-24.21) and 65.22% (95% CI: 48.64-78.72%), respectively. At the animal level, trekking route from or through CBPP endemic/epidemic zone to the study area [OR = 4.77 (95% CI: 1.92-11.84) compared to without trekking route] was identified as the most important risk factor for CBPP spread and seropositivity. In general, epidemiological evidence of the present study indicates that CBPP is a prevalent disease, and animal trekking is an important risk factor for spread of the disease in the study area. This needs due attention from the government and other concerned bodies for its prevention and control to mitigate its economic impact.

The intention of North-Western Ethiopian dairy farmers to control mastitis.

Understanding the intentions of dairy farmers towards mastitis control is important to design effective udder health control programs. We used the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to explore the intentions of North-Western Ethiopian dairy farmers towards implementing non-specified mastitis control measures (nsMCMs) and towards implementing 4 specific MCMs. Face to face interviews were held with 134 dairy farmers to study associations between their intentions and any of three factors (attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control) that, according to the TPB, determine intentions. The majority of the farmers (93%) had a positive intention to implement nsMCMs, whereas a smaller majority of farmers had the intention to implement the specific MCMs to improve udder cleaning (87%), to improve stall hygiene (78%), to improve feeding of cows (76%), and to perform foremilk stripping (74%). Farmers had a more positive attitude, but lower subjective norm and lower perceived behavioural control towards implementing nsMCMs compared with implementing most specific MCMs, although the subjective norms for stall hygiene and perceived behavioural control for improving feeding of cows were also low. Attitude was positively associated with intentions to implement nsMCMs, to improve cleaning of the udders, to improve stall hygiene and to implement foremilk stripping. Both the intention to improve udder cleaning and to implement foremilk stripping, were positively associated to subjective norms towards these MCMs. Our data can help tailor intervention programs aiming to increase the intention of Ethiopian dairy farmers to implement MCMs and thus to improve udder health in this country. We show that such programs should primarily focus on changing attitude and secondarily on improving the farmers' subjective norms.

Stochastic bio-economic modeling of mastitis in Ethiopian dairy farms.

Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland that is considered to be one of the most frequent and costly diseases in the dairy industry. Also in Ethiopia, bovine mastitis is one of the most frequently encountered diseases of dairy cows. However, there was no study, so far, regarding the costs of clinical mastitis and only two studies were reported on costs of subclinical mastitis. Presenting an appropriate and complete study of the costs of mastitis will help farmers in making management decisions for mastitis control. The objective of this study was to estimate the economic effects of mastitis on Ethiopian market-oriented dairy farms. Market-oriented dairy farming is driven by making profits through selling milk in the market on a regular basis. A dynamic stochastic Monte-Carlo simulation model (bio-economic model) was developed taking into account both clinical and subclinical mastitis. Production losses, culling, veterinarian costs, treatment, discarded milk, and labour were the main cost factors which were modeled in this study. The annual incidence of clinical mastitis varied from 0 to 50% with a mean annual incidence of 21.6%, whereas the mean annual incidence of subclinical mastitis was 36.2% which varied between 0 and 75%. The total costs due to mastitis for a default farm size of 8 lactating cows were 6,709 ETB per year (838 ETB per cow per year). The costs varied considerably, with 5th and 95th percentiles of 109 ETB and 22,009 ETB, respectively. The factor most contributing to the total annual cost of mastitis was culling. On average a clinical case costs 3,631 ETB, varying from 0 to 12,401, whereas a sub clinical case costs 147 ETB, varying from 0 to 412. The sensitivity analysis showed that the total costs at the farm level were most sensitive for variation in the probability of occurrence of clinical mastitis and the probability of culling. This study helps farmers to raise awareness about the actual costs of mastitis and motivate them to timely treat and/or take preventive measures. As a results, the dairy industry will improve.